25 "Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or drink; or about your body, what you will wear. Is not life more important than food, and the body more important than clothes? 26 Look at the birds of the air; they do not sow or reap or store away in barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not much more valuable than they? 27 Who of you by worrying can add a single hour to his life ?
28 "And why do you worry about clothes? See how the lilies of the field grow. They do not labor or spin. 29 Yet I tell you that not even Solomon in all his splendor was dressed like one of these. 30 If that is how God clothes the grass of the field, which is here today and tomorrow is thrown into the fire, will he not much more clothe you, O you of little faith? 31 So do not worry, saying, 'What shall we eat?' or 'What shall we drink?' or 'What shall we wear?' 32 For the pagans run after all these things, and your heavenly Father knows that you need them. 33 But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well. 34 Therefore do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will worry about itself. Each day has enough trouble of its own.
Eye Exercises
Matthew 6:25-33
Sermon
by Mark Trotter
I was stunned by the Old Testament lesson for this morning, where it says the Lord changed his mind about the disaster he planned to bring upon his people. I have read that passage before, and there are many others just like it in the Old Testament. But I guess I never paid much attention to them. I thought that they were simply vestiges of a more primitive stage of religion, and something that we in the modern age need not take seriously.
But then I read a book a few weeks ago by Richard Friedman, a professor of Jewish studies at UCSD, in which he makes a point that we ought to take such passages seriously as revelation, and not just vestiges of an outgrown phase of religion, or unimportant details in the story, but the very heart of the story. It says this is the kind of God that we have. We have a God who changes his mind.
But that is not the kind of God that I was raised to believe in. I was raised in the Church, raised by the piety of the Church, the hymns that we sing. Nothing about it there.
The hymns that we sang in the Methodist Church came out of the Reformation tradition, where God was affirmed as being sovereign, transcendent, immovable. The battle hymn of the Reformation, Luther's great hymn, "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God."
A mighty fortress is our God,
A bulwark never failing.
A "bulwark" is something that doesn't move. It's permanent.
One of the most famous Protestant hymns, a favorite of all, written in the 18th century by Isaac Watts, "O God, Our Help in Ages Past."
O God, our help in ages past,
Our hope for years to come,
Our shelter from the stormy blast,
And our eternal home!
Under the shadow of thy throne,
Still may we dwell secure;
Sufficient is thine arm alone,
And our defense is sure.
The picture of God that we were raised with is of a strong, immovable, transcendent, unsearchable God.
And, one of my favorite hymns:
Immortal, invisible, God only wise,
In light inaccessible hid from our eyes.
Most blessed, most glorious, the Ancient of Days,
Almighty, victorious, thy great name we praise.
Then in the third verse of that hymn:
We blossom and flourish as leaves on the tree,
And wither and perish, but naught changeth thee.
Nothing changes God. But according to our text this morning, read to us from the Book of Exodus, something does change God. God changes. At least God changes his mind, by the intercession of Moses.
The scene is on Mt.Sinai. Moses is up there on the mountain receiving the Ten Commandments. He must have been up there a long time because the people down below are getting nervous. They wonder where he is. Moses is their leader on this perilous trek across the desert. Moses has already demonstrated that he has a special relationship with God, that he has supernatural powers. They feel confident as long as Moses is with them.
But where is he? Where did he go? When's he coming back?
So they talk to Aaron, Moses' brother, who has been left in charge in Moses' absence. They say to Aaron, "We want something that is going to give us security. We want something tangible, something we can feel, get our hands on." Aaron says, "Take off the gold rings that are on the ears of your wives, your sons, and your daughters, and bring them to me."
Now you parents may not want to read that passage at home in the presence of your sons, because it reveals that the wives, the daughters, and the sons, wore earrings. I can hear the family discussion, parents saying, "You cannot wear an earring." The son replying, "But it is in the Bible!" To which you can reply, "So is, `Honor your father and your mother.'"
Aaron took the gold from the earrings, made a golden calf, and said, "Tomorrow we are going to have a festival." It is peculiar that it was a calf. I mean, it was common for Israel's neighbors to worship idols, and particularly bulls. Bulls were the symbol of fertility. All the neighbors had fertility religions. They had these great big golden bulls.
But nowhere in all anthropology, archeology, or the study of antiquity, has anybody suggested ancient peoples worshiped a calf. Perhaps they did not have enough gold from the earrings to make a big old bull, so they ended up with a little, tiny calf. We don't know. At any rate, they got up the next morning early, and started worshiping in the manner of their neighbors, a manner that was forbidden to them. As it is described in the text, "They sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to revel."
Meanwhile, on the mountain top, God wakes up Moses, and says, "Go down at once; for your people are acting perversely." You notice now they are Moses' people. Before they were God's people, "Let my people go." But now they are Moses' people. It's like old Ted Leitner on the radio. He says, "My Padres," when they win, and, "Your Padres," when they mess up. The people have messed up. So they are now Moses' people. "Go down at once; for I have seen this, and I aim to destroy them and start once again."
God has done that before. The time of Noah and the Flood, he spared one righteous man, and his family, and began the human race over again. He proposes to do that again. Only Moses intervenes, "Turn from your wrath. Change your mind. Do not bring disaster upon your people. Remember you made a promise to Abraham, Isaac, and to Jacob. And the Lord changed his mind about the disaster that he planned to bring upon his people."
This is amazing. It reveals a God who gets angry, and repents, and keeps on forgiving, over and over again. You can read the whole history of Israel in the Old Testament that way. It is a history of God getting angry at Israel, threatening to do something terrible to her, or to abandon her, and then remembering the covenant he has made with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and repenting, forgiving, taking Israel back.
So constant is this pattern of fighting and making up, that Israel likens her relationship to God to a marriage. Hosea is the one who makes the most of that. Israel the bride, who is unfaithful, chasing after other gods. God takes her back, forgives her, remembers the covenant he made with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
What all of this tell us is that the most essential thing about God, according to the Bible, is that God is faithful to his promises. God is merciful and loving and forgiving. As Jonah says to God when God wants him to go to Nineveh and preach repentance to the Ninevites so that he can forgive them, and Jonah doesn't want to go. He hates the Ninevites. He knows that if they repent, God will forgive them. He doesn't want that. So he says to God, "I knew you were a gracious and merciful God, long-suffering, abundant in relenting of doing harm."
The God who is far removed from us, immortal, invisible, unchanging, unfeeling, is not the God of the Bible. God may appear that way to those who know him not. That God is the God of the philosophers. The God of the abstract idea, the prime mover, the first principle, the ground of being, some idea, some abstraction. That is not the God of the Bible.
The God of the Bible is a God of compassion and love, of caring and of grace, caring for us so much he gets upset with us, and is tempted to chuck it all. But because he is also a God of mercy and of grace, manifested in the covenant he has made with us, the promise always to be with us, God changes his mind and forgives.
There is another development in this story that is equally amazing. The focus of the scene read to us this morning is the making of the calf and worshiping it. It is an act of pure, unadulterated idolatry, the most abominable thing in the eyes of God. But we know that God will not punish because of Moses' intercession.
But you would expect then that God would withdraw, or do something in response to what they have done to him. We would do that. If somebody offends us in some way, we may forgive them, we are supposed to do that, but we will not abide with them. We will withdraw. We won't associate with them.
And it would be so easy for God to do that, because he's a mountain God. All the gods in ancient times lived on mountains, inaccessible. It was believed that they were apart from us, so they were believed to dwell on top of mountains.
But what is so amazing is that from here on, through the remaining chapters of Exodus, there is a description of the construction of the tabernacle, or the tent of meeting, and the Ark of the Covenant. All of which constitute the place where God will dwell with his people. God, after this incident, will come down from the mountain and dwell from here on with his people. Instead of punishing, he forgives them. Instead of withdrawing from them, he joins them. God will be with them now, forever.
It is as if he understood why they sinned. They were anxious. They were fearful of the future. They were lost without Moses to guide them. In this uncertain future they didn't know what was going to happen to them, so they put their faith in something that was tangible, something visible, something they could get their hands on, something they could see and feel. Their sin was the product of fear. So God forgives, then treats the cause of their sin, not the symptom. Then he says he will dwell with them, so they need fear no longer. No longer do they need to worry about the future. He will be with them, going with them into the future.
Wherever they travel now the ark will go with them. They'll pick it up, and take the Ark of the Covenant with them. For several hundreds of years, through the conquest of Canaan, they'll carry the ark with them. It will be a sign that God is with them, clear to the time of King Solomon, when the Temple is built in Jerusalem, and the ark will be put inside the Temple.
Until then, it is in the midst of the people, and it is called the Ark of the Covenant, a reminder that God has made a promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, that he will never leave them. No matter what we do, God is faithful, and will never abandon us. That is why the psalmist can sing,
Whither shall I go from thy Spirit? If I ascend to heaven, thou art there! If I make my bed in Sheol, thou art there! If I take the wings of the morning and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea, even there thy hand shall lead me, and thy right hand shall hold me.
What I want you to see this morning is that the Church sought to describe what happened to the world in Jesus Christ by using that same language. They used the language out of the Old Testament, the language of the covenant, the language of faithfulness and forgiveness, the language of the presence of God with us.
That was especially true in telling of the birth of Jesus. The angel announces, "He shall be called Immanuel." Which means, "God is with us." But the Gospel of John uses language more explicitly from the Exodus story. "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." Then the fourteenth verse, "And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us."
That word "dwelt" is the same word used to describe God dwelling with the Jews in the Ark of the Covenant, in their midst. That is why the Church used the term "covenant" to describe what has happened to us. A new covenant has been made. This time the covenant is sealed with the cross and resurrection of Jesus. This time it is opened to everybody.
The question is often asked, what about the Jews now that there is a second covenant? What about the first covenant? The answer is the same. God is faithful to the promises that God makes. That is why Paul says to the Romans, "The old covenant has simply been enlarged so as to include the Gentiles." The other metaphor he uses is, "We have been grafted on to the trunk of God's promise."
So now we know the God Israel has known since the time depicted in the lesson read to us this morning, the God who came off the mountain. The remote, transcendent God, apart from the people, became the God who dwells with his people.
It is a radical idea of God. It was radical then, it is radical today. It says that God is not above, controlling things, but God is with us, enduring the same things that you and I have to endure.
You can see the difference in comparing the scene of Moses on Mt.Sinai, before this incident, getting an all-powerful God to change his mind, and Jesus, on the Mount of Olives, asking God to "let this cup pass from me." The difference is that God being with us will not alter the circ*mstances that we have to go through. God did not rescue Jesus from the cross, but will stay with him to redeem the situation. Because God is with us, good can come out of evil things. That is the enduring message of the cross and resurrection. God will triumph. That is the meaning of the resurrection. But God will do it through taking on the suffering of the world, and that's the meaning of the cross.
Arie Brouer was a Reformed pastor, part of the Reformed Church in America. At one time he was the General Secretary of the National Council of Churches. As a Reformed pastor, he was part of the Calvinist tradition, and the tradition that has the strongest emphasis on God's sovereign rule over the whole creation. It was the Calvinists after all who invented predestination to affirm that God is in control of everything. Every single move that we make is controlled by God.
Then Arie Brouer got cancer. A terrible theological problem for any sensitive Christian, but I would think especially so for a Calvinist. His son asked him about it in the most innocent way. "What does faith mean for you now that you are facing this?"
Arie Brouer responded by saying that he had believed in God all of his life, and because he has cancer is no reason for him to stop believing in God. His son said, "But you and mom have spent a lot of your life trying to make this a better place for all people. This is a very strange way to be paid back."
Brouer said to his son, "Steve, I don't believe that God wants me to have cancer. But what I have come to believe during these days is that God can't do anything about it. That raises some very fundamental questions for me about what I have been taught and what I have believed over the years about the almightiness of God. Because if God can't stop this, then I have to come to some new understanding of God's almightiness, or perhaps reject it altogether. I haven't had time to think about this because I am too busy dealing with all sorts of survival questions. But I am going to work on it."
And he did. He counted the number of times God's "almightiness" is mentioned in the New Testament. He discovered it is only ten times. Nine of the ten times are in the Book of Revelation, the last book of the Bible, the vision of the end of history. He said, "I looked at those texts that talk about God's almightiness, and I discovered that every one of them has to do with God's ultimate triumph in history. They say that at the end of history, God's love, and justice, and peace, will prevail. At the end of history, God will prevail in the struggle, and that now God is with us in the struggle. And I said to myself, `Arie, why in the world haven't you understood this before.'"
ChristianGlobe Networks, Inc., Collected Sermons, by Mark Trotter
This section teaches disciples how to relate to money (and other material possessions) or lack thereof. Above all, we should trust God and seek first his kingdom and his righteousness (6:33). Jesus instructs us to pursue heavenly treasures, which are permanent and secure, rather than earthly treasures, which are temporary and fleeting. He knows our heart will always follow our treasure (6:19–21). Next he speaks of the eye as the “lamp of the body” (6:22–23). The eye functions here as an expression of our souls (i.e., our prio…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
25 "Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or drink; or about your body, what you will wear. Is not life more important than food, and the body more important than clothes? 26 Look at the birds of the air; they do not sow or reap or store away in barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not much more valuable than they? 27 Who of you by worrying can add a single hour to his life ?
28 "And why do you worry about clothes? See how the lilies of the field grow. They do not labor or spin. 29 Yet I tell you that not even Solomon in all his splendor was dressed like one of these. 30 If that is how God clothes the grass of the field, which is here today and tomorrow is thrown into the fire, will he not much more clothe you, O you of little faith? 31 So do not worry, saying, 'What shall we eat?' or 'What shall we drink?' or 'What shall we wear?' 32 For the pagans run after all these things, and your heavenly Father knows that you need them. 33 But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well. 34 Therefore do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will worry about itself. Each day has enough trouble of its own.
The remainder of the body of the Sermon on the Mount covers various topics but fleshes out to some extent the ideas introduced in the Lord’s Prayer: a call to singular loyalty to God (6:19–24) and trust for daily needs (6:27–34), a warning against judging others (7:1–6), and a call to prayer (7:7–11).
Jesus calls his followers to loyalty to God in contrast to storing up possessions (6:19–21) and money (6:24). The saying comparing the eye to a lamp (6:22–23), though not fully clear to today’s readers, may draw on the ancient view that light goes out from a person’s eyes, so that the person’s body or self can be assessed by his or her eyes (cf. 5:16). The “healthy” eye might be better rendered “single-focused” (the Greek term frequently refers to singleness of purpose), since the context is about loyalty and the impossibility of serving two masters.
Jesus also calls the disciples to a life free from worry, a life defined by trusting in their God, who cares and provides daily needs of food and clothing (6:25–34). This exhortation was a weighty one in a cultural context where many people lived at a subsistence level (e.g., the day laborers of Matt. 20:1–15, who might have needed their end-of-day wage to feed their families). But for Jesus, life is to be free of worry, even if economically justifiable. His followers are to be characterized by focusing their first energies and priorities on the kingdom—God coming to make all things right (6:33). Trusting in God’s righteousness eliminates worry and “little faith” (6:30; cf. 8:26 for this concept).
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Big Idea: Jesus calls his disciples to undivided and primary allegiance to God and the kingdom, which will lead to trust in God for their needs.
Understanding the Text
This section of the Sermon on the Mount focuses on human allegiances and trusting God for daily needs. The Lord’s Prayer in the previous section has already highlighted these themes: allegiance to God and God’s kingdom (6:9–10) and requests for daily needs (6:11). Matthew 6:16–24 then deals with issues of allegiance, followed by attention to daily needs such as food and clothing (6:25–34). This passage includes the first reference to “little faith” (6:30), occurring five times in Matthew, each time being Jesus’ description of the disciples (8:26; 14:31; 16:8; 17:20). The passage also brings together clearly the two motifs of the entire Sermon on the Mount: God’s kingdom and covenant loyalty or righteousness. “Seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well” (6:33).
Interpretive Insights
6:19 Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth. This verse provides the headline for Jesus’ teaching on allegiances, a theme that flows directly from the first three petitions of the Lord’s Prayer. The fervent prayer for God’s kingdom to arrive leads naturally into a teaching on what one values in light of God’s imminent reign. The exhortation to “store up for yourselves treasures in heaven” (6:20) reflects an allegiance to the “kingdom of heaven,” Matthew’s favorite expression for God’s kingdom (4:17). The motif of treasure communicates specifically how material possessions and wealth can be powerful competition to allegiance to God. In fact, according to Jesus, it is not possible to live in service to both God and money (6:24).
6:21 For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also. The reference to a person’s treasure and heart being in the same location reflects the understanding of the heart as the seat of allegiance and affection. It is “a term for what is of central importance in a person, what constitutes their true character” (e.g., 15:18–19).1
6:22–23 The eye is the lamp of the body. This saying is difficult to decipher unless we address ancient views of human physiology and eyesight in particular. The eye is considered a channel for light as it leaves the body (rather than taking in light, as in modern understanding). This leads to the conclusion that the eye illuminates the light (or lack of light) within the body.2A healthy eye (opthalmos haplous) indicates a body “full of light”; an unhealthy eye (opthalmos poneros) attests a body “full of darkness” (6:22–23). And just as light and darkness can have a physical and metaphorical meaning, so these adjectives (“healthy” and “unhealthy”) can also carry metaphorical, in this case moral, implications. An unhealthy or evil eye is a sign of stinginess; a healthy eye indicates generosity and sincerity (as noted in the NIV footnotes). These ethical connotations help us to place these verses within the context of the discussion about the relationship between wealth and allegiance to God.
6:25 do not worry about your life. Building from the previous passage addressing allegiance and wealth, this section addresses the theme of worry in the face of lack of possessions and sustenance (6:25–34). Such circ*mstances were commonplace in the Greco-Roman world of the first century, just as they are in many parts of the world today. One model that reflects generally the relative economic levels in the Greco-Roman world suggests that about 3percent of the population were of elite economic status.3Another 17percent would have been made up of merchants, some freed persons and artisans, scribes and lectors, and military veterans, who would have had a measure of security and greater possibilities of upward mobility. The remaining 80percent would have lived close to or below subsistence level. As Bruce Longenecker notes of this larger group, “With 55% of the Graeco-Roman world skimming the surface of subsistence and occasionally dropping down below it..., and with another 25% living in an extremely fragile suspension above subsistence level..., studies of the early Christian movement cannot be immune to the pressing ‘realities of poverty’ that affected the majority of the imperial world.”4
6:27 by worrying add a single hour to your life? The word here translated “life” (helikia) may refer either to length of life (i.e., age) or to stature or height. Combined here with pechys, a term of measure (“cubit”), the phrase can refer either to a measured length within a lifespan (“a single hour to your life”) or “a single cubit to your height” (as in the NIV footnote). In the latter case, a cubit—the measured length from elbow to end of middle finger, about eighteen inches—would be a significant percentage of a person’s height. This would run counter to the logic of the verse. If Jesus is making a point about worry being unable to add (even) a certain measure to a person’s height, we would expect the relationship between the additional measure and the full height to be relatively small in percentage (e.g., by worrying could you add even an inch to your height?). So a cubit makes little sense if pechysis referring to height here. Instead, it is more likely that pechys refers to a measure within a lifespan.5
6:30 you of little faith. This brief characterization of the disciples, the primary audience of the Sermon on the Mount, will be repeated on the lips of Jesus four more times in Matthew (8:26; 14:31; 16:8; 17:20). The twelve disciples are portrayed as having little faith, as distinct from those in Matthew who lack faith (the Jewish leaders and Jesus’ hometown) and those who seek healing from Jesus and who show exemplary faith and even great faith (e.g., 8:10; 9:2, 22, 29; 15:28). “Little faith” is defined narratively by worry and fear (6:30; 8:26), wavering doubt (14:31), lack of understanding (16:8), and inability to do what Jesus has empowered his disciples to do (17:14–20; cf. 10:1). In the end, the disciples’ little faith is inadequate faith for fulfilling their mission (17:20).
6:32 pagans run after all these things, and your heavenly Father knows that you need them. Pagan (ethnos/ethnikos; i.e., non-Jewish) views have been referenced already in the sermon as counterpoints to right theology leading to right praxis (5:45–47; 6:7–8). Jesus calls his disciples to live as “children of [their] Father in heaven” (5:45). Like God, they ought to love even enemies. Unlike God and God’s children, pagans or Gentiles who do not know or follow God only love and welcome their own people. A right view of God should inform a different way of understanding God and living life. Similarly, pagan people babble in prayer, since they pray to gods who need to be persuaded with many words (6:7). Jesus affirms that the one true God already knows what people need before being asked (6:8). In the passage at hand, worry about daily needs of food and clothing stems from an improper theology that assumes that God is unaware of and unconcerned about people’s needs. Jesus counters that “your heavenly Father knows that you need [food and clothing]” (6:32), and that the Father cares deeply about human need and will provide (6:26). In all three cases insufficient understandings of God lead to ways of living that are inadequate.
6:33 But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness. In contrast to worry about daily existence, Jesus’ followers are to seek God’s kingdom and righteousness as their first priority. This is not an insignificant tension. In the first-century world, where provision of food and clothing could be a daily effort and struggle for the poor, Jesus asks believers to trust fully and deeply in God’s care so that they might prioritize the kingdom. The coupling here of the language of “kingdom” and “righteousness” highlights the two primary themes of the Sermon on the Mount: God’s imminent reign (5:3, 10) and covenant loyalty and faithfulness. The latter theme has been used to describe the covenant loyalty expected of Jesus’ followers as they live in light of the coming kingdom (5:20; 6:1). In this case, however, “righteousness” (dikaiosyne) clearly refers to God’s own righteousness (as some Greek manuscripts indicate by adding “of God” [tou theou] to “kingdom”). While it is possible that the reference is to God’s moral righteousness, which believers in Jesus should mirror, more likely in view is God’s covenant faithfulness to Israel in bringing promised salvation (see comments on 3:15 and also the sidebar “Matthew’s Covenantal Backdrop” in that unit). To prioritize God’s kingdom and covenant loyalty is to orient oneself fully around God’s reign and restoration of all things. As Matthew will make clear, God’s reign and restoring work are embodied in Jesus the Messiah, so that responding to God’s reign is about responding to Jesus.
Theological Insights: Dangers of Wealth
Matthew emphasizes allegiance to God’s kingdom over any valuing of material wealth. Later he will portray wealth as a distraction and a danger to participating in the kingdom (19:16–26). These teachings fit a wider complex of scriptural teachings on care for the poor and avoiding the dangers that wealth can bring. The Torah made provision for the poor in Israel (e.g., Exod. 23:10–11) and called Israel to generosity: “Be openhanded toward your fellow Israelites who are poor and needy” (Deut. 15:11). Luke develops these themes by announcing blessing on the poor and woe to the rich (6:20, 24). In ways countercultural in the Greco-Roman world and resonant with the Torah, Luke calls his audience to avoid showing favoritism to those with wealth and high status (14:12–14; 19:8) and warns of the dangers of hoarding wealth (12:13–21; 16:19–31). James 2 provides a similar call to avoid favoritism toward the wealthy.
Teaching the Text
1. Jesus calls his followers to an allegiance to God’s kingdom rather than to material possessions, wealth, and worry about the needs of daily existence. This passage provides a range of applications for believers in Jesus as it relates to wealth and possessions. While all followers of Jesus are called to align their allegiance to God and God’s kingdom and to store up treasure accordingly, specific exhortations from this passage will likely land differently with those in our audiences who have much and those who have little. Jesus’ warnings about serving money rather than God speak most directly to those in our audience who have the possibility of accumulation of wealth and who can insulate themselves from need and poverty. Alternately, Jesus’ call to trust God and Jesus’ promises about God’s ability and desire to meet needs of daily food and clothing are powerful words for those in our congregations who are poor and struggle to make ends meet. And we should not be afraid to preach both messages, even if we risk offending sensibilities on this touchy subject.
And we would be wrong to think that worry about daily life eludes the rich and those with enough to live on. Rather, worry about daily life plagues the rich as well as the poor, even if the worries may not be about putting food on the table or clothing on one’s back. Worry can consume the wealthy, who can easily be preoccupied with maintaining wealth and keeping up with the lifestyle of their neighbors. Additionally, concerns and crises in relation to physical and mental health, relationships, and emotional well-being strike rich and poor alike (though not always equally). One powerful application of this passage for those with many possessions and monetary abundance, which characterizes many in the Western world and church, is the freedom from wealth that it offers. Those with much are offered a way out of slavery to wealth by the call to a generous way of life that demonstrates a deep trust in God and the reality of light from within (6:22–23; see also 5:14–16).
2. Pursuing God’s kingdom rather than being consumed by worry about daily needs requires a deep trust in God’s goodness and ability to care for those needs. Matthew highlights the priority of the kingdom in this passage. God has come to make all things right in Jesus, and Christians are to live in light of and in line with kingdom priorities. And according to Jesus, the God who is bringing restoration is a God we can trust with all parts of life and death. This is a powerful message that provides the counterpart for kingdom allegiance. We can exhort our congregations to put God’s kingdom first, with all the risks that this entails, because we can assure them that God is fully trustworthy. Kingdom risk without a trustworthy God seems foolhardy. But putting the kingdom as our highest priority in relationship to a God who can be fully trusted is wisdom (7:24–27). Though we are often like the disciples, whom Jesus portrays as having “little faith” here and elsewhere (e.g., 6:30; 8:26), Matthew calls us through the words and deeds of Jesus into a deeper trust of our heavenly Father, who listens, cares, and works in this world for restoration.
Illustrating the Text
Jesus calls his followers to an allegiance to God’s kingdom rather than to material possessions, wealth, and worry about the needs of daily existence.
Lyrics: Consider the lyrics to Bob Dylan’s song “Gotta Serve Somebody.” If your context allows, you might play part of the song. In it, Dylan posits that all people will serve someone or something. No one is exempt from this human posture of allegiance and service. Jesus’ words make clear the allegiance to material comfort runs against allegiance to the living God: “You cannot serve both God and money.”
Pursuing God’s kingdom rather than being consumed by worry about daily needs requires a deep trust in God’s goodness and ability to care for those needs.
History: In Sleeping with Bread, Dennis Linn, Sheila Linn, and Matthew Linn tell this story in their introduction that might help us understand better the angst about daily provision that would have typified the ancient world.
During the bombing raids of World War2, thousands of children were orphaned and left to starve. The fortunate ones were rescued and placed in refugee camps where they received food and good care. But many of these children who had lost so much could not sleep at night. They feared waking up to find themselves once again homeless and without food. Nothing seemed to reassure them. Finally, someone hit upon the idea of giving each child a piece of bread to hold at bedtime. Holding their bread, these children could finally sleep in peace. All through the night the bread reminded them, “Today I ate and I will eat again tomorrow.”6
Teaching the Text by Jeannine K. Brown, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
The OT employs thirty-five different words for birds (both wild and domestic), but the identification of these words with known species has proved to be very difficult. Like other words for animals, terminology for birds often is employed in personal names (e.g., Jonah, Oreb, Zippor, Zipporah). There is significant evidence for fowling practices in ancient Israel, usually by means of nets and snares (Pss. 124:7; 140:5; Prov. 6:5; 7:23; Lam. 3:52; Hos. 7:12; Amos 3:5). Small birds and chickens are occasionally even depicted on Iron AgeII (1000586 BC) seals and vessels from sites such as el-Jib (Gibeon) and Tell en-Nasbeh (Mizpah).
Like other animals in the Bible, birds are depicted as agents of God. Divine agency is especially evident in instances such as the ravens feeding Elijah (1Kings 17:4–6) and the dove bringing an olive leaf to Noah (Gen. 8:11). The Bible also employs bird-related imagery such as in descriptions of divine judgment (Prov. 30:17; Jer. 12:9). Birds may also serve as ominous signs of impending judgment (Hos. 8:1). God’s “wings” can offer both healing (Mal. 4:2 KJV, RSV) and protection (Ruth 2:12; Pss. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:4). The metaphor of the soul or spirit as a bird is referenced in the description of the Holy Spirit descending like a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32). The observation that birds “do not sow or reap” is employed as an image of worry-free living (Luke 12:24; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 147:9). Jesus’ reference to “when the rooster crows” (Mark 13:35) is not strictly literal but rather refers to a watch of the night: the quarter of the night after midnight.
The prominence of sacrificial birds (especially doves and pigeons) in ritual literature indicates that they were likely raised for such purposes in ancient Israel. All birds could be eaten except those listed as unclean in Lev. 11:13–19 (twenty species) and Deut. 14:12–18 (twenty-one species). Generally speaking, birds of prey and those that feed on carrion or fish were considered unclean. Birds often served as food for the poor (Matt. 10:29–31; Luke 12:6–7). Poor people could offer birds as a substitute for expensive livestock (Lev. 5:7; 12:8; 14:21–22; cf. Luke 2:24), while the poorest of the poor were permitted to bring grain (Lev. 5:11). Finally, in one purgation ritual a live bird is used to carry away impurities (Lev. 14:52–53; cf. 16:22).
The metrological systems employed in biblical times span the same concepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, and volume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurements employed during the span of biblical times were not nearly as accurate or uniform as the modern units employed today.
Weights
Weights in biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into various animal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom was inscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement. Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significant amounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatly complicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.
Beka. Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahs or ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measure metals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).
Gerah. 1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20 shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).
Mina. Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50 shekels. Used to weigh gold (1Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver (Neh. 7:71 72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefined the proper weight: “The shekel is to consist of twenty gerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekels equal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, there were arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of the servants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servants varying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying a monetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver or gold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’ wages for a laborer.
Pim. Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3 shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1Sam. 13:21).
Shekel. Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent to approximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weight measurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight varied significantly at different historical points. Examples include the “royal shekel” (2Sam. 14:26), the “common shekel” (2Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,” which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, the shekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.
Talent. Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately 60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod. 25:39; 37:24; 1Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1Kings 20:39; 2Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably is derived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.
Litra. Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight. Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to the modern British pound.
Linear Measurements
Linear measurements were based upon readily available natural measurements such as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between the thumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method of measurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.
Cubit. Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6 handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, as the shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance from the elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height, width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen. 7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximate conversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half for meters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.
1 cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths
Day’s journey. An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25 miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a single or multiple days’ journey as a description of the distance traveled or the distance between two points: “a day’s journey” (Num. 11:31; 1Kings 19:4), “a three-day journey” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “seven days” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2). After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyed for a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.
Fingerbreadth. The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately ¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was the beginning building block of the biblical metrological system for linear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describe the bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).
Handbreadth. Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1⁄6 cubit, or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the four fingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’s brief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table (Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1Kings 7:26).
Milion. Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration of Roman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”
Orguia. Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as “fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably the distance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measure the depth of water (Acts 27:28).
Reed/rod. Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a general term for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance (Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).
Sabbath day’s journey. Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About 2,000 cubits.
Stadion. Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai. Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).
Span. Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to three handbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretched thumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:16).
Land Area
Seed. The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis of how much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1Kings 18:32).
Yoke. Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. In biblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animals could plow in one day (1Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).
Capacity
Cab. Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer. Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria (2Kings 6:25).
Choinix. Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement, mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).
Cor. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to the homer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of flour and grains (1Kings 4:22; 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquid volume, particularly oil (1Kings 5:11; 2Chron. 2:10; Ezra 45:14).
Ephah. Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters). Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flour and grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day of reduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce only an ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to the bath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.
Homer. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to 1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of various grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos. 3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkey can carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed a direct link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16: “fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” A logical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalences might look something like this:
1 homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1omer = 1 beka
Koros. Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measure of grain (Luke 16:7).
Omer. Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10 ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in the measurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod. 16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s daily food ration.
Saton. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. The measurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).
Seah. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah, or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various dry goods (e.g., 2Kings 7:1; 1Sam. 25:18).
Liquid Volume
Bath. Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, which typically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in the measurement of water (1Kings 7:26), oil (1Kings 5:11), and wine (2Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).
Batos. Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration of the Hebrew word bath (see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).
Hin. Approximately 4 quarts (1gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to 1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek. 4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).
Log. Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72 bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture, specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).
Metretes. Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement of water at the wedding feast (John 2:6).
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translate words meaning “nations” or “peoples.”
In general, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. God chose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:68; 10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership in the covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becoming part of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
The OT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessing through Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping the law, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. The law is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenant that God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5; 20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6; 10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss. 119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Such law/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OT understanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel, the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in and through Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3; 17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specifically involves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]). Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subject to Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16; 14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed by Israel’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel, serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fear Israel’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5; 60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic. 7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages further elucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in the God of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer. 12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations “flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentile participation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa. 2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
Situating Jesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentile sensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread across the Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God of Israel in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentiles experience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
Some Christians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought that Gentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God of Israel’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’s opponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from God and his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13; 1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation, especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin, lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32; Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However, various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keep the law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’s ultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, has replaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and his death and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ by the Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true, redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheriting God’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25; 8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7; Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentiles attain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightly before God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30; 1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8). Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles with respect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debates about Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for these issues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocal saying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and some other NT writings.
The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).
In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).
The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.
Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).
Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).
A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.
A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).
God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).
The kingdom of God is a major theme in the Bible. While the theme is most fully developed in the NT, its origin is the OT, where the emphasis falls on God’s kingship. God is king of Israel (Exod. 15:18; Num. 23:21; Deut. 33:5; Isa. 43:15) and of all the earth (2Kings 19:15; Pss. 29:10; 99:14; Isa. 6:5; Jer. 46:18). Juxtaposed to the concept of God’s present reign as king are references to a day when God will become king over his people (Isa. 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Zeph. 3:15; Zech. 14:9). This emphasis on God’s kingship continues throughout Judaism and takes on special significance in Jewish apocalypticism and its anticipation of the kingdom of God in the age to come, which abandoned any hope for present history. Only at the end of the age will the kingdom of God come. This idea of God’s kingdom is further developed throughout the NT.
Righteousness is an important theme in both Testaments of the Bible. The concept includes faithfulness, justice, uprightness, correctness, loyalty, blamelessness, purity, salvation, and innocence. Because the theme is related to justification, it has important implications for the doctrine of salvation.
Being careful to avoid imposing Western philosophical categories onto OT texts, we may say that the core idea of righteousness is conformity to God’s person and will in moral uprightness, justness, justice, integrity, and faithfulness. Behind the many and varied uses of righteousness language in the OT stands the presupposition that God himself is righteous in the ultimate sense (e.g., Ezra 9:15; Isa. 45:21; Zeph. 3:5). Righteousness is the expression of his holiness in relationship to others (Isa. 5:16), and all other nuances of righteousness in the biblical texts are derived from this.
Related to humans, righteousness is often found as the opposite of wickedness. Righteousness often occurs in evaluative contexts, where it relates to proper conduct with respect to God, the order of the world as he created it, the covenant, or law (e.g., Deut. 6:25). God reigns in righteousness and justice (e.g., Ps. 97:2), and humans should align their conduct with this righteous reign. Righteousness can be expressed as personal integrity with phrases such as “my righteousness” (2Sam. 22:21, 25; Ps. 7:8) and “their righteousness” (1Sam. 26:23). Unrighteousness is found in poetic parallel to injustice (e.g., Jer. 22:13); the unjust are parallel with the wicked (Ps. 82:2).
Righteousness language is more rare in the Gospels than one might expect in light of OT and Jewish intertestamental usage. These references fit with the Jewish setting: righteousness is required of God’s people, and unrighteousness is to be avoided. Righteousness is proper conduct with respect to God or Torah (Matt. 21:32) in contrast to wickedness (Matt. 13:49). Righteousness could be conceived as one’s own (e.g., Luke 18:9) and has its reward (Matt. 10:41). While the specific terms related to righteousness are infrequent in the Gospels, the broader concept of conformity to God’s will is widely apparent in calls for repentance, personal moral uprightness, mercy, and concern for the marginalized. The NT Epistles continue these general strands of the concept. Righteousness is related to personal conduct (1Thess. 2:10; 1Tim. 6:11; 2Tim. 2:22; 1Pet. 2:24) and is contrasted with wickedness (2Cor. 6:14); it is a matter of doing, not knowing (Rom. 2:13). An example of righteousness in doing is the kindness shown by the prostitute Rahab, who hid the Israelite spies (James 2:25).
The NT does signal some new dimensions related to righteousness. In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 57), Jesus extends the requirements of righteousness to conformity to his own teaching and directives, a shocking display of authority. In his mission to call sinners rather than the “righteous” (e.g., Mark 2:17), Jesus implicitly questions the righteousness of the “righteous.” In similar manner, personal righteousness in terms of a righteousness of one’s own is negative in the NT (Rom. 10:3; Phil. 3:6; cf. Luke 18:9).
The NT continues the OT theme of righteousness as it relates to God himself. God is righteous (John 17:25; Rom. 3:5; 9:14; Heb. 6:10; cf. Matt. 6:33). His judgments are righteous (Rom. 2:5), and his commands and laws are righteous (Rom. 7:12; 8:4). God is a righteous judge (2Tim. 4:8). His saving activity is righteous; he does not compromise his own justice in justifying the ungodly (Rom. 3:24–26). The righteousness of God is contrasted with human unrighteousness and wickedness (Rom. 3:5; James 1:20). Since God reigns over creation in righteousness, human conduct should conform to that standard (e.g., Rom. 14:17). Jesus is also noted as righteous (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; 1Pet. 3:18; 1John 2:1, 29). He fulfilled righteousness in the absolute sense of demonstrating complete conformity to the nature and will of God (e.g., 1Pet. 3:18). He also fulfilled God’s righteousness in the sense of his saving activity toward humans (e.g., 2Pet. 1:1).
As the son and successor to David, Solomon reigned forty years over the united kingdom of Israel (c. 971931 BC). Extensive accounts of his reign are provided in 1Kings 1–11; 2Chron. 1–9. Solomon, the second son born to Bathsheba, was marked out at birth as “loved by the Lord” (2Sam. 12:24–25 NIV mg.). He succeeded his father as king, even though he was not David’s oldest living son (1Kings 2). The building of the temple is the centerpiece of the biblical accounts of Solomon’s reign.
It is common to divide Solomon’s reign into two unequal halves (1Kings 1–10; 11), with Solomon only becoming apostate due to the influence of foreign wives (1Kings 11).
The immediate dissolution of the united kingdom after Solomon’s death cannot be simply blamed on the inept handling of the crisis by his son Rehoboam (1Kings 12). Solomon’s policies put an inordinate economic burden on the North (4:7–19). His conscription of forced labor (5:13–18) and sale of twenty cities in Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (9:10–14) were resented. The raising up of a series of adversaries, including Jeroboam, was a divine judgment (11:9–13). The prophet Ahijah favored Jeroboam (11:29–39). The prophet Shemaiah prevented Rehoboam’s military invasion of the north (12:21–24). The northern tribes wanted relief from Solomon’s harsh policies (“Your father put a heavy yoke on us” [12:4]). Rehoboam was unwilling (or unable?) to compromise. Solomon’s death is reported in 1Kings 11:41–43, but frequent allusions to him follow (e.g., 12:2, 4, 6, 9), for it was his policies that precipitated the split.
Direct Matches
What fills the space between the earth and heavens, providinga domain for flying birds (Gen. 1:6–8, 20–23; Deut.4:17). “Birds of the air,” or “birds in the sky,”is a common biblical expression (e.g., Gen. 1:26, 28, 30; 2:19–20;Pss. 8:8; 79:2; 104:12; Matt. 6:26; 8:20; 13:32). Moses threw sootinto the air, which led to the plague of boils on Egypt (Exod.9:8–12). People threw dust into the air as an expression ofmourning (Acts 22:23). Paul uses the images of boxing and speaking“into the air” to express futility (1 Cor. 9:26;14:9). As the boundary between earth and heaven, the air is whereChrist will meet his church at his coming (1 Thess. 4:17).Paul’s contemporaries also distinguished between lower, impureair (vapor) and upper, pure air (ether). Spirits haunted the vapor.Paul therefore claims that Satan is the evil spirit who rules the airbelow where Jesus is seated at the right hand of the Father (Eph.1:20–23; 2:2).
Anxiety is an inner disposition of restlessness over fearedor uncontrollable outcomes, and it can have debilitating effects (Ps.139:23; Prov. 12:25). Its opposite is not carelessness or apathy butrather confident trust in God (Ps. 37; Isa. 26:3–4). Jesusteaches his disciples to trust God’s daily care as a radicalalternative to anxiety (Matt. 6:25–34; cf. Eccles. 2:22), andJesus’ instruction and preparation free them from anxiety overfuture trials (Matt. 24:25; Mark 13:11). Scripture invites us to movefrom anxiety to peace by means of prayer (Pss. 94:19; 139:23; Phil.4:6; 1 Pet. 5:7).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
The normal foodstuff of livestock in biblical times, grassconsisted of various kinds of fast-growing, ground-covering plants(Num. 22:4; 1Kings 18:5). Several types of grass were native toIsrael, including short-lived grasses that sprang up during the rainyseason and died down shortly afterward, as well as longer-lastingdune grasses. Dried grass, or hay, does not appear to have beenharvested but needed to be removed before the new growth appeared(Prov. 27:25). The various words for “grass” can alsoindicate other vegetation, some of which was suitable for pasture,and some of which was even used for human consumption (Gen. 3:18;Matt. 13:26).
Becauseof its shallow roots, grass is quick to grow and quick to wither.This transience provides a suitable metaphor for human mortality (Ps.90:5–6; Isa. 40:6; 1Pet. 1:24), in contrast with thepermanence of God’s word. It also illustrates the fleetingsuccess of the wicked (Ps. 92:7), in contrast to the security of therighteous. Grass is the quickest indicator of changes in growingconditions, and thus it was also a barometer of God’s blessingon his people (Ps. 72:16). Grass is considered the most mundane ofplants, of little value, yet even this plant is valued by God, who issaid to clothe the grass with the splendor of lilies (Matt. 6:28–30).
Life is a complex, multifaceted concept in the Bible. VariousHebrew and Greek terms convey the idea of life. Life is described inboth a natural and a theological sense.
Lifein the Natural Sense
Inits natural sense, “life” may convey the following:(1)the vital principle of animals and humans, (2)thelength of time that one has life, (3)the complete plot and castof characters of an individual’s lifetime, or (4)themeans for maintaining life.
First,life is the vital principle of animals and humans. This use of theterm is its popular sense. It refers to the quality of having ananimate existence or the state of being animate. Therefore, it isexpressed in terms of ability or power; one who has life has thepower to act. On the other hand, “death” is its antonym;one who is dead no longer acts. In the Bible, life in this senseapplies to both animals and humans; however, the quality of lifediffers because humans are made in the image of God (Gen. 1:26; 5:1;9:6). Life is manifested in the breath of life, so that one who nolonger has the breath of life no longer has life (Gen. 2:7; 6:17; Job12:10; 27:3; Rev. 11:11). At the same time, life is seated in theblood. For this reason, blood should not be consumed but shouldinstead be poured out and buried (Gen. 9:3–5; Lev. 17:10–16;Deut. 12:23–25). Although life may cease because of physicalcauses (whether disease, murder, accident, etc.), God is ultimatelythe Lord of life. He gives life through his breath of life (Gen. 2:7;Ezek. 37:4–14); he sustains life through his spirit (Ps.104:29–30; cf. Gen. 6:3; 1Cor. 15:45); he delivers fromdeath (Gen. 5:24; Ps. 30:3; 1Cor. 15); he gives life and putsto death (Deut. 32:39; 1Sam. 2:6). Life, therefore, is firstand foremost a gift from God.
Ina discussion of life as the vital principle, it is important toaddress the question of the afterlife. The Bible affirms thesignificance of both the material and the immaterial components of ahuman being. The body is not merely a shell in which the true personis housed. Death is not the soul’s escape from the body’sprison, as evidenced by the resurrection of the dead (Ezek. 37:1–14;Dan. 12:2; Luke 14:14; 1Cor. 15). Human beings are not createdto live a disembodied existence ultimately. The fate for those whoexperience eternal life is the resurrection of the body made from anincorruptible source (1Cor. 15, esp. vv. 42–50). Forothers, their fate lies in eternal death (Matt. 25:46; Rev. 20:6–15;21:8).
Second,in both Testaments, “life” may also refer to the durationof animate existence—one’s lifetime. The duration ofone’s life in this sense begins at birth and ends at death(Gen. 23:1; 25:7; 47:9, 28; Luke 16:25; Heb. 2:15). This period oftime is brief (Ps. 90:10; James 4:14). The Bible describes two waysthat one’s lifetime may be extended: first, God givesadditional time to a person’s life (2Kings 20:6; Ps.61:6; Isa. 38:5); second, one gains longer life by living wisely andhonoring God (Prov. 3:2; 4:10; 9:11; 10:27).
Third,sometimes “life” refers to the complete plot and cast ofcharacters of an individual’s lifetime. In other words, “life”may refer to all a person’s activities and relationships(1Sam. 18:18 KJV; Job 10:1; Luke 12:15; James 4:14).
Fourth,“life” rarely may refer to the means of livelihood (Deut.24:6; Prov. 27:27; Matt. 6:25; Luke 12:22–23). These passageshighlight two aspects of life in this sense: (1)people areresponsible to guard life; (2)God gives this life because ofhis great concern, which exceeds his care for the birds and flowers.
Lifeas a Theological Concept
Beyondits natural sense, life is developed as a theological conceptthroughout the Bible.
OldTestament.The first chapters of Genesis set the stage for a rich theologicalunderstanding of life. First, God creates all things and preparesthem for his purposes. He is the creator of life, and life is a giftfrom his hand. The pinnacle of his creative activity is the creationof humankind. God blesses the man (Adam) and the woman (Eve) whom hecreates. God prepares a special place, a garden, for them, so thatthey may be able to live in perfect communion with him, under hisblessing. At the center of the garden lies the tree of life. The treeof life demonstrates that the garden is both the sphere of God’sprovision and the symbol of life itself. At the same time, Godcommands the man not to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good andevil, “for when you eat from it you will certainly die”(Gen. 2:17).
Atthis point, life and death take center stage. What follows in thenarrative (Gen. 3) is a presentation of the meaning of life and deathas theological concepts. Adam and Eve disobey the divine commandment.As a result, they die. However, their death is not death in thenatural sense. Instead, when they disobey God’s commandment,there are three results: (1)a curse is pronounced, (2)theyare exiled from the garden away from God, and (3)they areprevented from eating from the tree of life (3:14–24). Death inthis case is not ceasing to breathe and move but is curse and exile;in other words, to die is to be removed from the place of God’spresence and blessing and be placed under a curse. Life, then, is theopposite: to live is to be settled in the place of God’spresence and blessing.
Itis also important to recognize in this narrative that obedience toGod’s commandment leads to life, but disobedience to hiscommandment leads to death. This principle is picked up throughoutthe Bible. Its clearest expression is found in Lev. 18:5: “Keepmy decrees and laws, for the person who obeys them will live bythem.”
Thisnarrative also draws an important connection taken up in other partsof the Bible, especially Proverbs: the connection between life andwisdom. In the garden there are two trees at the center: the tree oflife and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Although thereis some question concerning what is precisely meant by the knowledgeof good and evil, it is likely that wisdom is in view. Two pieces ofevidence support this conclusion: (1)knowledge and wisdom aswell as good and evil are central concerns for the book of Proverbs;(2)the narrative associates the tree with wisdom. When Eveconsiders eating from the tree, she notices that it is like the othertrees in that it has a pleasant appearance and is good for food (Gen.2:9), but it is also distinct from the other trees because it isdesirable for making one wise (3:6). By eating the fruit, she andAdam attempt to gain wisdom contrary to God’s command. As aresult, this type of wisdom leads to death. However, true wisdom hasthe opposite effect. It leads to life, being a tree of life itself(esp. Prov. 3:18; also 3:1–2; 4:10–23; 6:23).
Althoughthese themes—life, blessing, obedience, and wisdom—arefound in various places throughout the Bible, they come together mostexplicitly in Deuteronomy. There devotion and obedience to God areviewed as the means of attaining wisdom and understanding (Deut.4:5–9). Following God leads to living in the land that God hadpromised and enjoying his blessings there (28:1–14); however,forsaking God leads to all kinds of curses and ultimately to utterdefeat and exile from the land (28:15–68). The choice to followGod and obey him or to forsake God and disobey him results in eitherlife or death, good or bad, blessing or curse (30:15–20).
Lifeas a theological concept therefore has the following characteristics:being in the presence of God rather than exile, and experiencing hisblessings rather than his curses. Such life may be attained throughdevotion and obedience to God and through the wisdom that comes fromGod.
NewTestament.This concept of life forms the background for that of the NT as well.The NT often speaks of eternal life, especially in the writings ofJohn. Eternal life is being in fellowship with God the Father andJesus Christ (John 17:3). One may experience eternal life beforenatural death and beyond it into the eternal future (John 3:36; 5:24;6:54; 10:28). At the same time, eternal life may refer more narrowlyonly to the time of perfect fellowship with God that lies beyondnatural life (Matt. 25:46; Mark 10:30; Rom. 2:7). Because lifeconsists of being in fellowship with God and living in his blessings,John can state that the one who believes in Jesus “has eternallife and will not be judged but has crossed over from death to life”(John 5:24). In other words, the person who believes in Jesus hasbeen transferred from God’s curse to his blessing, from deathto life. Furthermore, Jesus declares that he is life, and that thosewho believe in him will live and not die; that is, they will never beremoved from his presence and blessing (John 11:25–26).
A flowering plant esteemed by the Hebrews for its beautifulblossoms. Lily decorations were in the temple as part of the gardenimagery connecting the temple to the garden of Eden (1Kings7:19, 22, 26). The lily is prominent in the poetry of the Song ofSongs (Song 2:1–2; 5:13; 6:2–3), and God used it topicture the future prosperity of Israel (Hos. 14:5). Jesus alluded tothe beauty and carefree existence of lilies as he encouragedlisteners not to worry about clothing (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).
In biblical culture, a small cooking device cylindrical inshape and made of clay. Ovens were used for baking bread and otherfoods (Exod. 8:3; Lev. 2:4; 26:26; cf. “firepot” [Gen.15:17; Jer. 36:22; Zech. 12:6]; “furnace” [Isa. 31:9;Mal. 4:1; Ps. 21:9]). The fire was built on a layer of pebbles on theoven floor. Bread was baked on the exterior surface of the oven or onthe pebbles inside. Typical fuels were wood, dried grass (Matt. 6:30;Luke 12:28), and animal dung (Ezek. 4:15).
Righteousness is an important theme in both Testaments of theBible. The concept includes faithfulness, justice, uprightness,correctness, loyalty, blamelessness, purity, salvation, andinnocence. Because the theme is related to justification, it hasimportant implications for the doctrine of salvation (see alsoJustification).
OldTestament
Divinerighteousness.Being careful to avoid imposing Western philosophical categories ontoOT texts, we may say that the core idea of righteousness isconformity to God’s person and will in moral uprightness,justness, justice, integrity, and faithfulness. Behind the many andvaried uses of righteousness language in the OT stands thepresupposition that God himself is righteous in the ultimate sense(e.g., Ezra 9:15; Isa. 45:21; Zeph. 3:5). Righteousness is theexpression of his holiness in relationship to others (Isa. 5:16), andall other nuances of righteousness in the biblical texts are derivedfrom this. Either he reveals what is right or demonstrates rightnessin his activity. God’s decrees and laws are righteous (Deut.4:8; Ps. 119); his will is righteous (Deut. 33:21); his acts arerighteous (Judg. 5:11; 1Sam. 12:7; Ps. 71:24); his judgmentsare righteous (Ps. 7:11); and he always judges with righteousness(Ps. 96:13). In OT texts, divine righteousness is often linked toGod’s saving activity, particularly in Psalms (e.g., Ps. 71)and in Isa. 40–66. Divine righteousness is much broader thandeliberative justice (i.e., punishing the wicked and rewarding therighteous), though it does include it.
Humanrighteousness. Relatedto humans, righteousness is often found as the opposite ofwickedness. Righteousness often occurs in evaluative contexts, whereit relates to proper conduct with respect to God, the order of theworld as he created it, the covenant, or law (e.g., Deut. 6:25). Godreigns in righteousness and justice (e.g., Ps. 97:2), and humansshould align their conduct with this righteous reign. Righteousnesscan be expressed as personal integrity with phrases such as “myrighteousness” (2Sam. 22:21, 25; Ps. 7:8) and “theirrighteousness” (1Sam. 26:23). Unrighteousness is found inpoetic parallel to injustice (e.g., Jer. 22:13); the unjust areparallel with the wicked (Ps. 82:2).
Itseems likely that the OT understanding of righteousness was moreconcrete and less absolute than the typical thinking of mostcontemporary Western Christians. A more absolute way of understandingrighteousness might lead one to think that a truly righteous personis sinless. While we do have references to absolute righteousness inthe OT (e.g., Ps. 143:2; cf. Job 4:17; 25:4; Isa. 64:6–7),there are many more references to a righteousness grounded inparticular or generalized situations (e.g., Pss. 32:11; 64:10).Another way of unpacking this conceptual difference is the helpfuldistinction between “ordinary” and “absolute”righteousness. Ordinary righteousness reflects the kind ofrighteousness that we intend when making comments such as “mywife is a righteous woman.” This means, taken in broadperspective, that her life is characterized predominantly byrighteousness. This statement is not making a claim of sinlessness,absolute righteousness. The OT offers examples of comparativerighteousness between people (e.g., Gen. 38:26; 1Sam. 24:17;Jer. 3:11). Absolute righteousness is different from this. It is theextraordinary righteousness that we see in the person and work ofGod; he is righteous and without sin, totally holy in his dealings.
NoncanonicalJewish documents from the intertestamental period, while varyinggreatly in individual perspective, generally affirm OT views of humanand divine righteousness. In these documents righteousness often isassociated with mercy, goodness, justness, and concern for the poorand is contrasted with wickedness.
InGreco-Roman society, righteousness was one of the cardinal virtuesand thus had an important influence in society. Greco-Romanrighteousness did have some measure of abstractness as a kind ofexternal norm, but this abstractness should not obscure the fact thatrighteousness often had a relational component in Greco-Romanliterature and life. Righteous and unrighteous behaviors often wereembedded in interpersonal relationships. Unrighteous deeds not onlyviolated “transcendent” standards of righteousness, butalso impacted humans.
NewTestament
Ordinaryhuman righteousness. Righteousnesslanguage is more rare in the Gospels than one might expect in lightof OT and Jewish intertestamental usage. These references fit withthe Jewish setting: righteousness is required of God’s people,and unrighteousness is to be avoided. Righteousness is proper conductwith respect to God or Torah (Matt. 21:32) in contrast to wickedness(Matt. 13:49). Righteousness could be conceived as one’s own(e.g., Luke 18:9) and has its reward (Matt. 10:41). While thespecific terms related to righteousness are infrequent in theGospels, the broader concept of conformity to God’s will iswidely apparent in calls for repentance, personal moral uprightness,mercy, and concern for the marginalized. The NT Epistles continuethese general strands of the concept. Righteousness is related topersonal conduct (1Thess. 2:10; 1Tim. 6:11; 2Tim.2:22; 1Pet. 2:24) and is contrasted with wickedness (2Cor.6:14); it is a matter of doing, not knowing (Rom. 2:13). An exampleof righteousness in doing is the kindness shown by the prostituteRahab, who hid the Israelite spies (James 2:25).
TheNT does signal some new dimensions related to righteousness. In theSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7), Jesus extends the requirementsof righteousness to conformity to his own teaching and directives, ashocking display of authority. In his mission to call sinners ratherthan the “righteous” (e.g., Mark 2:17), Jesus implicitlyquestions the righteousness of the “righteous.” Insimilar manner, personal righteousness in terms of a righteousness ofone’s own is negative in the NT (Rom. 10:3; Phil. 3:6; cf. Luke18:9).
Divinerighteousness. TheNT continues the OT theme of righteousness as it relates to Godhimself. God is righteous (John 17:25; Rom. 3:5; 9:14; Heb. 6:10; cf.Matt. 6:33). His judgments are righteous (Rom. 2:5), and his commandsand laws are righteous (Rom. 7:12; 8:4). God is a righteous judge(2Tim. 4:8). His saving activity is righteous; he does notcompromise his own justice in justifying the ungodly (Rom. 3:24–26).The righteousness of God is contrasted with human unrighteousness andwickedness (Rom. 3:5; James 1:20). Since God reigns over creation inrighteousness, human conduct should conform to that standard (e.g.,Rom. 14:17). Jesus is also noted as righteous (Acts 3:14; 7:52;22:14; 1Pet. 3:18; 1John 2:1, 29). He fulfilledrighteousness in the absolute sense of demonstrating completeconformity to the nature and will of God (e.g., 1Pet. 3:18). Healso fulfilled God’s righteousness in the sense of his savingactivity toward humans (e.g., 2Pet. 1:1).
“Therighteousness of God” and extra-ordinary human righteousness.Thereis a significant OT connection between God’s righteousness andhis faithfulness in saving activity (e.g., Psalms; Isa. 40–66).Although there are glimpses of righteousness related to God’ssaving activity outside of Paul’s Letter to the Romans (e.g.,Matt. 5:10; 6:33), a technical phrase, “the righteousness ofGod,” is used in three important texts in Romans (1:17; 3:21–22[2×]; 10:3 [2×]). In the gospel, “the righteousnessof God” is revealed, where “righteousness of God”could mean his divine righteousness in some sense, righteousness fromGod (NIV), God’s saving activity as related to hisrighteousness in fulfilling his covenant faithfulness (e.g., Psalms),or some combination of these.
Therighteousness of God is further discussed in Rom. 3:21: “therighteousness of God” has now been revealed apart from theMosaic law, though the OT testifies about it (cf. Rom. 4 and Rom.1:17; Gal. 3:11; Heb. 10:38). This righteousness of God is clarifiedin that it is by trust in Jesus Christ for all, both Jews andGentiles. The “righteousness of God” may be distinguishedfrom righteousness as a character quality of God (Rom. 3:25–26).In fact, it must be, for God’s righteousness as a characterquality was revealed in the OT, whereas “the righteousness ofGod” is “apart from the [Mosaic] law” (3:21).
InRom. 10:3 Paul comments that the Israelites are ignorant of “therighteousness of God”; they are seeking to establish their ownrighteousness because they are not submitting to “therighteousness of God.” The Israelites certainly knew of God’srighteousness in terms of his character, judgments, and expectationsof his people. The lack of submission to “the righteousness ofGod” occurs in the context of the Jewish rejection of Jesus(e.g., 9:32–33; 10:9–13). And Jesus is the key tounderstanding “the righteousness of God” in the othertexts also.
InRom. 1:17 the righteousness of God is revealed in the gospel, whichis the power of God for salvation to all who trust in Jesus (1:3–5,16). The righteousness of God in 3:21–22 is related to trust inJesus (3:22, 25–26), who as a sacrifice of atonement (3:25)enables the justification and redemption of sinners (3:24, 26). InJesus we become the righteousness of God (2Cor. 5:21). Therighteousness of God, then, is God’s saving activity revealedand manifested in the person and work of the Lord Jesus Christ,whereby sinners are justified as both innocent and righteous inChrist.
As the son and successor to David, Solomon reigned fortyyears over the united kingdom of Israel (c. 971–931 BC).Extensive accounts of his reign are provided in 1Kings 1–11;2Chron. 1–9. Solomon, the second son born to Bathsheba,was marked out at birth as “loved by the Lord” (2Sam.12:24–25 NIV mg.). He succeeded his father as king, even thoughhe was not David’s oldest living son (1Kings 2). Thebuilding of the temple is the centerpiece of the biblical accounts ofSolomon’s reign.
Itis common to divide Solomon’s reign into two unequal halves(1Kings 1–10; 11), with Solomon only becoming apostatedue to the influence of foreign wives (1Kings 11). The earlierchapters, however, are not wholly commendatory. Solomon’s“wisdom” in dealing with Joab and Shimei is vengeful andruthless (2:6, 9). In 1Kings 3:1 his palace is mentioned beforethe temple (because it took precedence in Solomon’s mind?). Hespent seven years on the temple but lavished thirteen years on hisown house (6:38; 7:1). Behind the picture of his excessive wealth andlucrative trade in horses stand the (unheeded) prohibitions of Deut.17:14–17. His Egyptian marriage and resort to the high places(1Kings 3:1–4) foreshadow his overt apostasy (11:1–8).All in all, Solomon proved to be a sad disappointment.
InChronicles the reigns of David and Solomon are viewed ascomplementary, such that Solomon completed what David had preparedfor. Solomon needed David’s plans and provisions (1Chron.28–29), but David needed Solomon to actually build the temple.Just as David brought the ark to Jerusalem, Solomon transferred it tothe temple (2Chron. 5). David organized the cultic officials(1Chron. 22–27), but Solomon installed them (2Chron.8:14–15). Chronicles gives a picture of Solomon’s reignthat is very different from the one found in Kings. There is nocompetition to succeed (cf. 1Kings 1–2), no apostasy, andno raising up of adversaries (cf. 1Kings 11:14–40).Solomon enjoyed all Israel’s support throughout his reign. Thisneed not, however, be viewed as whitewashing Solomon. The trueexplanation is that the focus in Chronicles is almost exclusively onSolomon as temple builder. The Chronicler was also aware of Solomon’sfailings (as hinted at in 2Chron. 9:29; 10:4–15).
Theimmediate dissolution of the united kingdom after Solomon’sdeath cannot be simply blamed on the inept handling of the crisis byhis son Rehoboam (1Kings 12). Solomon’s policies put aninordinate economic burden on the north (4:7–19). Hisconscription of forced labor (5:13–18) and sale of twentycities in Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (9:10–14) were resented. Theraising up of a series of adversaries, including Jeroboam, was adivine judgment (11:9–13). The prophet Ahijah favored Jeroboam(11:29–39). The prophet Shemaiah prevented Rehoboam’smilitary invasion of the north (12:21–24). The northern tribeswanted relief from Solomon’s harsh policies (“Your fatherput a heavy yoke on us” [12:4]). Rehoboam was unwilling (orunable?) to compromise. Solomon’s death is reported in 1Kings11:41–43, but frequent allusions to him follow (e.g., 12:2, 4,6, 9), for it was his policies that precipitated the split.
Solomonwas largely responsible for the book of Proverbs (Prov. 1:1; 10:1;25:1). The superscription of the Song of Songs (Song 1:1) associatesthe book with Solomon, and he is referred to a number of times withinit (1:5; 3:7–11; 8:11–12). He is not, however, the loverdepicted. The book of Ecclesiastes sometimes is attributed to him,given that the author describes himself as “son of David, kingin Jerusalem” (Eccles. 1:1). The author’s reputed wisdom,wealth, and building programs also suggest the figure of Solomon(1:12–2:11). Solomon’s marriages are used as anillustration in a sermon against foreign marriages in Neh. 13:26. Inthe NT, Solomon’s wealth and wisdom are alluded to in Jesus’teaching (Matt. 6:29; 12:42). He is also mentioned in relation to thetemple (John 10:23; Acts 3:11).
Either one’s physical height (1Sam. 16:7;1Chron. 11:23; Isa. 45:14; Luke 19:3 NRSV) or one’srepute or status in the eyes of others. Samuel grew in “statureand in favor with the Lord and with people” (1Sam. 2:26).In the same way, Jesus grew in “wisdom and stature, and infavor with God and man” (Luke 2:52). The term can be usedfiguratively concerning length of life (Matt. 6:27 KJV) or refer tospiritual growth (Eph. 4:13 NRSV).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Matthew 6:25-34
is mentioned in the definition.
Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).
The blessings and curses of Scripture are grounded in aworldview that understands the sovereign God to be the ultimatedispenser of each. Blessings and curses are not the outcomes ofmagicians who attempt to manipulate the gods for personal gain orretribution. Rather, God is the giver of blessing and ultimately thefinal judge who determines withdrawal or ban. He is the source ofevery good gift (James 1:17) and the one who gives power and strengthto prosper (Deut. 8:17).
Someview the nature of blessing and curse as simply a gift from God,while others see it as an act in which one party transmits power forlife to another party. Perhaps the common thread between views is theidea of relationship.
Terminology.In the OT, the key Hebrew terms for blessing are the verb barak andthe noun berakah. When the context of their use identifies a personor a living creature as the object of blessing, the basic idea is toprovide someone with special power that will ultimately enhance hisor her life. The blessing theme is also illuminated by means of wordssuch as “grace,” “favor,” “loyalty,”and “happiness.”
Inthe NT, the Greek term eulogeō and its cognates are bestunderstood in terms of the impartation of favor, power, and benefits.The makarios word group describes a state or status of beingfortunate, happy, or privileged.
TheOT curse vocabulary includes the ideas of disgracing, makingcontemptible, and imprecation. The NT curse terminology comprises theideas of curse, slander, or consecrated to destruction.
OldTestament.Thesovereign God sometimes employs agents of blessing in his creation.The blessing extends to the nations through Abraham (Gen. 12:3), toJacob through Isaac (Gen. 26–27), and to the people through thepriests (Num. 6:24–26).
Thetheme of blessing/curse is used to structure Deut. 27–28 andLev. 26 (cf. Josh. 8:34) in the overall covenant format of thesebooks. Scholars have observed that the object of this format is notsymmetry or logical unity but fullness. From this perspective, theblessing/curse structure functions to enforce obedience for thepurpose of ensuring a relationship. The blessing of Deuteronomy alsoincludes the benefits of prosperity, power, and fertility. The curse,on the other hand, is the lack or withdrawal of benefits associatedwith the relationship.
Thecreation narratives are marked with the theme and terminology ofblessing (Gen. 1:22, 28; 2:3; cf. 5:2; 9:1). The objects of blessingin Gen. 1:22, 28 (cf. 5:2; 9:1) are the living creatures and humanbeings created in the image of God. As the revelation progresses, theblessing of God is particularized in the lives of Noah (Gen. 6–8),Abraham (Gen. 12–25) and his descendants, and the nation ofIsrael and its leadership (Gen. 26–50). In these contexts, theblessing is intended to engender offspring and to prosper recipientsin material and physical ways (compare a similar NT emphasis in Acts17:25; cf. Matt. 5:45; 6:25–33; Acts 14:17).
Theblessing of God is also extended to inanimate objects that enhanceand prosper one’s quality of life. The seventh day of creationis the object of blessing (Gen. 2:7; Exod. 20:11), perhaps giving ita sense of well-being and health. Objects and activities of life suchas baskets and kneading troughs (Deut. 28:5), barns (Deut. 28:8), andwork (Job 1:10; Ps. 90:17) are blessed.
Godpromises to bless those who fear him (Ps. 128:1). Blessing isdesigned for those who, out of a deep sense of awe of God’scharacter, love and trust him. The God-fearer confidently embracesGod’s promises, obediently serves, and takes seriously God’swarnings. The blessings itemized in Ps. 128 are comparable to thosedetailed in Deut. 28 relating to productivity and fruitfulness (cf.Ps. 128:2 with Deut. 28:12; Ps. 128:3 with Deut. 28:4, 11). TheDeuteronomic concept of blessing and curse is questioned whenGod-fearers undergo a period of suffering or experience God’sapparent absence (e.g., Joseph, Job; cf. Jesus).
NewTestament.Inthe NT, blessings are not exclusively spiritual. God gives both foodand joy (Acts 14:17) and provides the necessities of life (Matt.6:25–33). The NT does connect blessing with Christ, and itfocuses attention on the spiritual quality of the gift thatoriginates from Christ himself and its intended benefit for spiritualindividuals.
Regardingcurse, the NT explains that Christ bore the curse of the law to freeus from its deadening effect (Gal. 3:10–13). Revelation 22:3anticipates a time when the curse associated with sin will becompletely removed and the blessing associated with creation willprevail.
The book of Haggai is the tenth book in the collection knownas the Minor Prophets or the Book of the Twelve. Haggai was acontemporary of Zechariah, and the two prophets had an overlappingpurpose: to encourage their generation to rebuild the temple. Thoughshort and similar in theme to Zechariah, Haggai has its owninterests, and it repays close reading.
HistoricalBackground
Thesuperscription (1:1) attributes the book to a man named “Haggai”(related to the Hebrew word hag, meaning “festival”).Though mentioned in Ezra 5:1–2; 6:14, these texts add nothingsubstantial to the little knowledge that we have about Haggai fromthe book itself, except that he was responsible for the propheticspeeches contained in the book. These speeches are placed in anarrative context, but it is speculative to argue that anyone otherthan Haggai was responsible for the book.
Haggaiand Zechariah are unusually precise in the dates that they give theiroracles. They are dated to a fairly brief period during the reign ofthe Persian king Darius I (see table 1).
Table1. Dates Given in the Oracles of Haggai and Zechariah:
Haggai1:1 – Year 2/Month 6/Day 1 of Darius’ reign – Aug.29, 520 BC – Temple to be built
Haggai1:15 – Year 2/Month 6/Day 24 of Darius’ reign –Sept. 21, 520 BC – Work on temple resumed
Haggai2:1 – Year 2/Month 7/Day 21 of Darius’ reign – Oct.17, 520 BC – Glory of the temple
Zechariah1:1 – Year 2/Month 8 of Darius’ reign – Oct./Nov.520 BC – Zechariah’s authority
Haggai2:10, 20 – Year 2/Month 9/Day 24 of Darius’ reign –Dec. 18, 520 BC – Zerubbabel as God’s signet
Zechariah1:7 – Year 2/Month 11/Day 24 of Darius’ reign –Feb. 15, 519 BC – First night vision
Zechariah7:1 – Year 4/Month 9/Day 4 of Darius’ reign – Dec.7, 518 BC – An issue about fasting
Ezra6:15 – Year 6/Month 12/Day 3 of Darius’ reign –Mar. 12, 515 BC – Temple completed
Thesituation that Haggai addresses begins in 587/586 BC with thedestruction of Jerusalem and the temple by the Babylonians and thebeginning of the exile. Not all the people of Judah were taken toBabylon, but the vast majority of the leaders were.
In539 BC the Persian Empire, led by Cyrus the Great, defeated Babylonand inherited its vast empire, including its vassals, among which wasJudah. From the start, the Persians adopted a different foreignpolicy. They allowed all the Babylonian vassals to return to theirhomelands to rebuild their temples (this policy is recorded in acontemporary cuneiform text known as the Cyrus Cylinder). Cyrusannounced his intentions to the Jewish people through what has cometo be known as the Cyrus Decree, in which he describes how God hascalled him to have the temple rebuilt (2Chron. 36:23; Ezra1:2–4).
Whileone might have expected droves of Jewish exiles to return home, thatwas not the case. Many had heeded Jeremiah’s call to settledown in the place of their exile (Jer. 29:5–6), but among theearly leaders of those who did return was Zerubbabel, a Davidicdescendant who became governor of the Persian province of Yehud (thePersian period name for Judah). Haggai addressed his letter toZerubbabel and to Joshua, the high priest at the time.
Zerubbabelcame back to Jerusalem in 539 BC (or soon after) and immediatelyrebuilt the altar and the foundation of the temple (Ezra 3:2–10),but then the work faltered. A number of factors contributed to thecessation of work, including conflicts between the returnees andthose who took over their land while they were in exile (Jer.52:15–16; Ezek. 11:3, 15). The need to establish their ownholdings in the land distracted them from the work on the temple.Neighboring people and local Persian officials also put roadblocks inthe way of reconstruction (Ezra 4:1–5; 5:3–5).
Afterseveral years of inactivity on the part of the returnees, God raisedup Haggai and Zechariah to exhort the people to get their prioritiesstraight. The people responded to their message and work resumed,with the result that the second temple was finished in 515 BC.
Outlineand Content
Thebook of Haggai is a narrative presentation of four of Haggai’sprophetic oracles:
I.Superscription (1:1)
II.Oracle Urging the People to Rebuild the Temple and the People’sPositive Response (1:2–15)
III.Oracle of Encouragement concerning the Glory of the Second Temple(2:1–9)
IV.Oracle Encouraging the People to Stay Pure and Receive a Blessing(2:10–19)
V.Oracle of Divine Blessing to Zerubbabel (2:20–23)
Thefirst oracle (August 29, 520) is a disputation whereby God challengeshis people for tending to their own houses and fields whileneglecting the construction of the temple. The people respondpositively and start building the temple just a few weeks later(1:15). The second oracle (October 17, 520), given just a few weeksafter construction has commenced, is a divine encouragement thatalthough the second temple is not as physically grand as the firstone, God’s glory will make this temple greater than the first.The third and fourth oracles are delivered on the same day (December18, 520 BC). The third oracle contains a dialogue between God and thepeople concerning holiness and uncleanness. The point seems to bethat the people want to acquire holiness from the temple just byworking there. It is not contagious, however. They will have to workat being holy. On the other hand, something can be made unholy bycoming into contact with something unclean, so the temple can becomedefiled if a sinful and unrepentant people come into contact with it.The final oracle is a divine pronouncement that Zerubbabel is ofspecial significance to God and his purposes. While this could leadsome to think of Zerubbabel as the expected deliverer (the Messiah),that is not the role he plays.
TheologicalMessage
Theoracles of Haggai are clearly and specifically dated, so modernreaders know that they reflect his prophetic ministry during afour-month period in 520 BC. The historical background to his messagebegins with the early return from exile under Sheshbazzar andZerubbabel, the latter being frequently mentioned in Haggai. Soonafter the return, the altar was rebuilt, and sacrifices began to beoffered in the temple area, but the temple itself was still indisarray. The focus of Haggai’s concern is that God wants hispeople to get busy reconstructing the temple. They have beenhesitant, according to Haggai, because of their own economicstruggles. God, through Haggai, tells his people that they must firsttake care of their religious obligations, and then God will blessthem with personal well-being.
Inaddition, Zerubbabel plays an important role in the prophecy ofHaggai. He is a descendant of David and a leader in postexilic Judah.His presence may have given rise to the expectation of thereestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, or at least that seems to bethe implication of the last verses of the book, based on 2 Sam.7:1–11.
NewTestament Connections
Haggaiand Zechariah’s call to return to the task of rebuilding thetemple had its intended influence. The people of God set to work onthe temple and finished it in 515 BC. Haggai’s messagecontinues to be relevant, however, especially as he calls readers toget their priorities straight. In essence, the principle behindHaggai’s call is to “seek first the kingdom of God”(cf. Matt. 6:33). He reminds God’s people that God comes first,and then other matters fall into their proper place.
Onthe other hand, whatever greater expectation there was regardingZerubbabel never really materialized. Although used for God’spurposes, he fades from biblical history. The expectation of aDavidic ruler was not fulfilled at that time, and this led tointensified expectation. The NT authors understand that the Davidiccovenant came to fulfillment in Jesus Christ.
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
The term “exodus” comes from a Greek word meaning “departure.” Specifically, the exodus refers to Israel’s departure from Egyptian slavery and its move toward the promised land (Canaan). The story of the exodus begins with a description of the harsh conditions under which the children of Abraham lived in Egypt, the raising up of a deliverer, the plagues, the actual departure, and the crossing of the Red Sea. Some treatments of the exodus include the wanderings in the wilderness (this topic is treated separately as a transitional period between the exodus and the conquest and settlement of the promised land; see Wilderness Wandering).
Many questions of interpretation of the exodus are matters of discussion, some of which will be treated below. These include, among other issues, the size of Israel, the date of the events, and the nature of the plagues. Two questions dominate all the others: Did the exodus happen? Does it matter to the message of the Bible whether the exodus happened?
The Nature of the Exodus
The exodus event is described in the first fifteen chapters of the book of Exodus, which opens with a description of Israel’s enslavement in the land of Egypt. The descendants of Israel had been in Egypt since the time of Joseph (see Gen. 37–50). An unspecified but significant number of years had passed since Joseph, and when the action begins in the book of Exodus, the Israelites were no longer honored in the land but reviled. Unmentioned in the Bible, but known from extrabiblical literature, a group called the “Hyksos” (“rulers of foreign countries”), ethnically related to the Hebrews, had taken advantage of an Egypt in political chaos and had dominated it for about a century (c. 1664–1555 BC). The events of Exod. 1 occurred after the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt, and many associate the new distrust of Israel with a general fear of a large Semitic presence in the land once a native Egyptian monarchy had been restored.
The biblical text, however, gives no motive but simply states that an unnamed (see below) pharaoh issued a decree to enslave the Israelites and to kill Israelite baby boys. In this context of enslavement and murder, God raised up a deliverer, Moses. His birth was extraordinary. After giving him birth, Moses’ mother placed him in a papyrus basket and put him on the Nile River. He was discovered by none other than the daughter of Pharaoh, who even hired Moses’ mother as a wet nurse. Thus, Israel’s deliverer was raised in the very household of the pharaoh who was trying to exterminate him.
Parallels to the Moses birth story exist. Especially close is the Sargon legend. Sargon was born to a high priestess who, for unstated reasons, could not keep him. Instead of abandoning him, she placed him in a basket and floated him down the Euphrates, where he was discovered by Aqqi, an irrigation worker. Aqqi raised Sargon, and from there he became the first king of the dynasty of Akkad. Rather than attributing the stories’ similarities to imitation, we should rather understand the action of Moses’ and Sargon’s mothers as the typical way that mothers helped preserve their babies in difficult situations. The moral of the biblical story is that God allows Israel’s future hero to survive so that he can use him to deliver his people.
Nothing is narrated about Moses’ childhood. The next major episode of the exodus involves Moses’ intervention in an altercation between a Hebrew and an Egyptian. Moses, who certainly knew his true parentage, killed an Egyptian who was beating an Israelite. This killing became known, and he had to flee Egypt.
Moses’ flight from Egypt brought him to Midian, an area around the Gulf of Aqabah. He married into the family of a Midianite tribal leader, Jethro. It was here, specifically at Mount Sinai, that God, speaking to Moses at a bush that was in flames but not consumed, called him to return to Egypt to confront Pharaoh. In response to Moses’ hesitation, God made his brother Aaron his companion and spokesperson.
When Moses returned to Egypt, he demanded that Pharaoh allow his people to go into the wilderness for three days in order to celebrate a festival. Ethical issues arise with this demand because it is unlikely that the Israelites would have returned to Egypt after the three days. This deception is not the only instance when lying seems to be divinely approved in the OT. We should likely understand that the pharaoh had forfeited his right to the truth because he intended to use it for evil purposes.
Pharaoh refused to allow the Israelites to leave. In response, God sent a series of disasters (plagues) against Egypt. According to Exod. 12:12, the plagues were judgments directed at the gods of Egypt (see also Num. 33:4). Turning the Nile into blood, God attacked the god of the Nile, Hapi. Darkening the sun, God showed his power over the most important Egyptian deity, the sun god Aten-Re. Climactically, the death of the Egyptians’ firstborn sons and livestock brought tragedy to the god who ruled Egypt, the pharaoh.
The plagues were a series of divinely initiated disasters of nature, miracles, or extraordinary providence, not naturally occurring events, that brought Egypt to its knees. Ultimately, Pharaoh agreed to let Israel leave Egypt. On the evening of the last plague, the Israelites celebrated the Passover (Exod. 12), which ever since has been an annual commemoration of their deliverance from Egypt.
Even after they set off toward the promised land, however, they were not safe. Pharaoh, angry and embarrassed, had a final change of mind and set off after the Israelites. He cornered them with their backs against an impassable body of water known traditionally as the Red Sea. The Hebrew phrase (yam sup) is literally translated “sea of reeds” and probably refers to one of the deepwater lakes that once existed to the north of the Gulf of Suez. In any case, Moses and the Israelites had no chance of escape—that is, no human chance. God opened up the sea so that they could pass through, and when the Egyptians tried to follow, he closed the sea so that it engulfed them. God’s act of rescue and judgment is then celebrated in song (Exod. 15:1–18). After they passed safely through the waters, the Israelites then continued their journey through the wilderness and toward the promised land.
Did It Happen?
The only direct witness of the exodus is the Bible itself. The account given in the book of Exodus is intended to be taken as an actual past event, and those who have confidence in the Bible as a historical source typically do not doubt the historicity of the exodus, although some questions persist, such as the size of the group that left Egypt or whether the exodus was the culmination or the beginning of a process of Israelites moving from Egypt to Israel.
Unfortunately, there is only indirect evidence of Israelite presence in Egypt in the second half of the second millennium BC (see “When Did It Happen?” below). The exodus and Israel are never mentioned in Egyptian records. Of course, it is unlikely that Egypt would have preserved permanent records of such an embarrassing and painful moment in its history. The exodus is not the type of event that Egypt would have memorialized by a pyramid or on tomb walls. What we do have on tomb walls, however, does show in a general sense that Semitic peoples were engaged in slave labor in the second millennium in Egypt. For instance, as early as the reign of ThutmoseIII, around 1460 BC, we have scenes of foreigners making bricks for the temple of Amun in Thebes. This is one example of indirect evidence that can be marshaled to make the account of the exodus sound reasonable. In this context, we should also note that the first extrabiblical evidence for the existence of Israel as a people in Egypt comes from the very end of the thirteenth century BC, in a victory monument of Pharaoh Merneptah (also known as the Israel Stela) that mentions Israel as a vanquished enemy.
When Did It Happen?
The biblical evidence is ambiguous as to when the exodus took place. Note that the names of the pharaohs are not given. The most straightforward text is 1Kings 6:1, stating that Solomon began building the temple in his fourth year, which was 480 years after the exodus. Taking this number literally places the exodus in the middle of the fifteenth century BC. Through correlations with Assyrian chronology, which mentions dateable astronomical events, Solomon’s fourth year is reckoned to be approximately 966 BC. If the exodus took place in the fifteenth century BC, then a ruler such as ThutmoseIII would be a candidate for the pharaoh of the exodus.
Problems arise, however, when this date is compared to the traditional interpretation of archaeological evidence. A full discussion of the issue is impossible here, but as an example, we will note briefly the two “store cities” that Egypt forced Israel to build, Pithom and Ram-eses (Exod. 1:11). In the first place, the name of the second city reflects that of a pharaoh who ruled in the thirteenth century, RamessesII. It is possible that the book of Exodus has updated the name of a city that had existed as early as the fifteenth century. Indeed, some archaeological remains from the fifteenth century at the archaeological site are widely recognized as the remains of Rameses (Tell Qantir [Daba’]). But it was during the reign of RamessesII that the city really expanded.
Archaeology better (but not perfectly) supports a date for the exodus in the thirteenth century BC, with Ramesses as the pharaoh of the exodus. This conclusion holds not only for Pithom and Rameses but also for the cities said to be involved in the conquest that took place forty years later (Jericho, Ai, Hazor).
A late date (thirteenth century) for the exodus can be biblically justified by taking the number 480 as symbolic. The number 40 could stand for a generation (like the wilderness generation), and thus 480 years would stand for twelve generations. However, a generation is actually closer to twenty-five years, meaning that twelve generations would “literally” be about three hundred years. Accordingly, the exodus would be dated to the first part of the thirteenth century.
In conclusion, both the archaeological evidence and the chronological statements of the Bible are ambiguous. Archaeological results are often open to more than one interpretation. While insisting on the historicity of the exodus, we still cannot be dogmatic about when the exodus took place, whether in the fifteenth century or in the thirteenth.
Does It Matter Whether It Happened?
Many today understand the story of the exodus to be just that, a story. Often stories are meaningful in and of themselves, apart from whether the events they relate actually happened. However, in the case of the exodus, if the events associated with it did not happen, then the moral of the story has no relevance. The main teaching of the exodus is that Yahweh is a God who can rescue his people when they are beyond human aid. Indeed, that is how the exodus was understood even in later OT settings (see Ps. 77). At the exodus God was establishing a track record, showing that he was capable of and, under certain conditions, willing to rescue his people.
Biblical Theology
The exodus is the salvation event that defined Israel as a nation. Occurring at the beginning of Israel’s national history, it served as an important reminder of God’s concern and care for his people. After the exodus, the Israelites journeyed through the wilderness toward the promised land. Due to their rebellion and lack of trust, God punished them by making them stay in the wilderness for forty years, enough time for the first generation of adults to die out. With the exception of the faithful spies, Joshua and Caleb, those who stood on the eastern bank of the Jordan River forty years later did not experience the crossing of the Red Sea. To demonstrate that the God of power was still with them, God caused the waters of the Jordan River to stop, evoking memories of the exodus (Josh.3).
The psalms also often recall the exodus in such a way that this past event may bring confidence for the present and hope for the future. Psalm 77 illustrates this, as does Ps. 114, which personifies the sea as the forces of chaos, afraid of God, who will control it.
Interestingly, the later prophets often speak of the exodus as if it were a future event. Isaiah (4:5; 11:15–16; 40:1–11; 43:18–19; 48:21; 49:11–12; 50:2; 51:9–10; 52:10; 63:11–14), Jeremiah (16:14–15; 23:7–8), Hosea (2:14–16), and many others announce God’s coming judgment on his sinful people. Looking beyond judgment, though, they also envision a future rescue of the faithful remnant, and often they do this in the language of the exodus.
When did this second exodus take place? Ezra 1–6 recounts the early returns under leaders such as Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel. Those who heard the prophetic message would have understood the exile as a reversion to bondage and a wandering in the wilderness. Thus, we should not be surprised that the faithful would think of the return to the land as a fulfillment of the promises of the second exodus. It is striking that just as the Egyptians gave gifts to the departing children of Israel (Exod. 3:21–22; 11:2; 12:35–36), so too did the people of Israel’s present foreign neighbors: “All their neighbors assisted them with articles of silver and gold, with goods and livestock, and with valuable gifts, in addition to all the freewill offerings” (Ezra 1:6). As the exodus generation offered gifts for the construction of the tabernacle (Exod. 35:21–29), so too the returnees contributed gifts for the construction of the temple (Ezra 2:68–69).
However, the return from exile was just the beginning. The NT understands that Jesus Christ is the ultimate fulfillment of the exodus; his work on earth follows the pattern of the exodus.
His ministry began with his baptism at the Jordan River, reflecting the Israelites’ crossing through the Red Sea (which was their baptism [1Cor. 10:1–6]), after which he went into the wilderness for forty days and nights (Matt. 4:1–11). Here he experienced the same temptations as Israel did during its forty-year wandering. In contrast to the Israelites, Jesus showed that he was the obedient Son of God by not succumbing to the temptation, each time quoting the book of Deuteronomy, Moses’ last sermon to the Israelites in the wilderness.
After naming twelve disciples (reflecting the twelve tribes of Israel), Jesus preached a sermon from a mountain whose subject was the law (Matt. 5–7). Such a topic in such a setting would have reminded a Jewish Christian audience of God giving Moses the law on Mount Sinai.
These are just some examples of the connection between the exodus and Jesus’ life. The connection culminates, though, on the cross, since Jesus is executed on the eve of the Passover, the annual celebration of the deliverance from Egypt.
While the connections with Jesus’ life are arguably the most significant, the book of Hebrews also uses the exodus theme, though in a slightly different way. Hebrews likens contemporary Christians to the wilderness generation. They have been freed from their bondage (sin) and are on the way to the promised land (heaven), but for now they are in the wilderness. The author makes the connection to warn Christians not to rebel against God, as many in the wilderness generation did, and thus suffer punishment (Heb. 3:7–4:13).
Little, if anything, in the Bible directly addressesfinancial planning, but some principles are relevant. The obviousneed for basic financial planning was used by Jesus as anillustration for the cost of discipleship: those who seek to build atower must count the cost before they begin (Luke 14:28). Themotivation for financial planning ought not to be fear or anxiety(Matt. 6:25–26), for God can be trusted to provide. Appropriatemotivations for good financial planning include the desire to storeup wealth as an inheritance for one’s children (Ps. 17:14), toprovide for one’s household (1Tim. 5:8), and to avoid thedangers of debt and dependence on others (1Thess. 4:11–12).
Financialplanning ought not to be considered a guarantee of wealth, since thefuture is unknown to people, and the success of any venture isdependent upon God’s will (James 4:13–15). Neither shouldstoring up wealth be viewed as a goal in its own right, for suchwealth will be of no ultimate benefit to its owner (Ps. 49:10; Prov.11:4). Hoarded wealth will only rot away (James 5:2–3); wealthis given by God to be used (Luke 16:11). In particular, theacquisition of wealth by ungodly means will not benefit its owner andwill end up in the hands of the righteous, although this may notoccur until a future generation (Prov. 13:22; 28:8).
The blossoms of seed-bearing plants that contain the plant’s reproductive organs. Used generally, “flowers” refers to the colorful array of blossoms that grew mostly in the open fields of the Holy Land. Numerous kinds of wild flowers could be found in the plains and mountains of Palestine. When winter rains were followed by the moderate temperatures of spring, renewal abounded (Song 2:11–12). Early spring blossoms presented an array of vibrant color and form. As early as January, cyclamen poured forth pink, white, and lilac blossoms, followed by various shades of red and pink of the crown anemones, poppies, and mountain tulips. The flowers of the diverse tuberous plants of the lily family also added to the colorful mosaic. Summer brought fields of chamomile and chrysanthemums, with their yellow and white daisylike flowers. The blossoms from plants such as mints, mustards, and other native herbaceous plants, along with those of flowering trees, shrubs, and field flowers, provided ample nectar for bees in the land of milk and honey (Num. 13:27). Healing or soothing ointments and various perfumes were produced from the essential oils extracted from the crushing of blossoms from a variety of flowers.
Flower Imagery
Traditionally, the language of flowers functions to illustrate some prominent themes, such as love and beauty. Flower imagery in descriptions of the tabernacle, of Solomon’s temple, and in the Song of Solomon develops the themes of beauty, purity, sweetness, and love (Song 2:1–5; 5:13; Isa. 28:4). The Song of Solomon is set in a garden scene where the sensuous quality of flowers—their colors, shapes, and scents, their delicate touch—are analogous to the captivating sexuality of physical love. The spring setting assures that the flowers are at their pinnacle of brilliance and the air is filled with the fragrance of vine blossoms (Song 2:12–13).
Used metaphorically, flowers can also refer to transience, pride, restoration, and the glory of the holy and eternal. Such references are found in both Testaments. The short life of flowers is representative of the brevity and fragility of human life on earth (Job 14:2; Ps. 103:15; Isa. 40:6–8; 1Pet. 1:24). After a brief moment of splendor, decline and decay are close behind. Such is the metaphor used in psalms, by the prophets, and in the NT for the life of a person who flourishes like the flower, is like the grass one day, but is gone the next day.
As surely as flower imagery points out our human mortality, it also serves to illustrate the judgment of the proud or ungodly, as when Isaiah prophesies the speedy downfall of the kingdom of Israel like flowers being trampled under-foot (Isa. 28:1–3), turned to dust (5:24), or cut off with pruning knives (18:5). Nahum sees God’s power to rebuke his enemies in his ability to dry up seas and rivers and to make the many flowers of Carmel and Lebanon wilt (Nah. 1:4). James applies the flower imagery to describe the sudden departure of the rich person, passing away as quickly as the flowers of the field, whose beauty perishes under the burning heat of the sun (James 1:10–11).
The usual contexts of this flower imagery are judgment on the proud and the wicked, whose deeds will be short-lived. The insignificant and contemptible deeds of the wicked are contrasted with God’s power; our human transience and frailty with God’s permanence (Ps. 103:15); and our human weakness with the eternal word of God (Isa. 40:6, 8; 1Pet. 1:24–25).
The flower can also represent a blessing. The righteous are compared to the flowering or flourishing of a plant (Isa. 5:24; 18:5; 28:1–4), since the flowering of a plant represents the peak of its life process, its most glorious moment. This beautifully pictures the restoration themes of the prophets as they utilize flower imagery. Isaiah’s words “The desert and the parched land will be glad; the wilderness will rejoice and blossom. Like the crocus, it will burst into bloom; it will rejoice greatly and shout for joy” (Isa. 35:1–2; cf. 27:6) are one example of God’s restorative ability to turn a wasteland into a garden. Hosea illustrates this theme: “I will be like the dew to Israel; he will blossom like a lily. Like a cedar of Lebanon he will send down his roots” (Hos. 14:5). The psalmists also sing of the righteous, not the wicked, flourishing like grass or the flower (Pss. 72:7, 16; 92:12–14). Proverbs too reminds us that the righteous will “flourish,” or break forth and sprout like foliage (Prov. 14:11).
Flowers Named in the Bible
The Bible often identifies flowering plants by a more generic name rather than mentioning specific flowers. Sometimes context can help in determining more specific species. According to 1Kings 7:19–20, 26, lily blossoms, along with pomegranates, adorned the top of the bronze columns that stood before King Solomon’s temple. In a musical aspect, three psalms are identified as those to be sung to the tune “Lilies” (Pss. 45; 69; 80).
The most frequently mentioned specific flowers are traditionally translated “lily” and “rose” (though these are probably not accurate renderings since these flowers are not native to the region and so would have been unfamiliar to most readers). Many commentators believe that the phrase “lilies of the field” referred to the showy, attractive springtime flowers that grow profusely in the plains, pastures, and hills of the Carmel and Sharon regions. These flowers can include ranunculus, anemone, cyclamen, tulip, hyacinth, narcissus, crocus, iris, and orchid. The tulip, asphodel, star-of-Bethlehem, hyacinth, and related narcissus, daffodil, crocus, and iris inhabit the rocky ground and dry places of the hill country. The “lily of the valleys” of Song 2:1–2 is probably the blue hyacinth.
Consider Jesus’ words “Observe how the lilies of the field grow; they do not toil nor do they spin, yet I say to you that not even Solomon in all his glory clothed himself like one of these” (Matt. 6:28–29 NASB). Although these flowers may not be true lilies but rather one of the numerous showy spring flowers such as the crown anemone, Jesus proclaims that the beauty of a single flower in a meadow was more striking than all the riches of Solomon, and that the flower did not concern itself with working and getting riches to be clothed. Jesus’ comments about flowers demonstrate that their beauty was appreciated in Israel.
The flowers listed below are specifically named in various Bible versions.
Almond blossoms. The almond tree is among the first of flowering trees to bloom in the spring. Almond blossoms were part of the almond-tree design on the seven-branched lampstands of the tabernacle (Exod. 25:33–34; 37:19–20). In Eccles. 12:5, almond tree blossoms are likely an allegorical reference to an elderly person’s hair turning white like the almond tree.
Camphire flower. In Song 1:14; 4:13, the KJV refers to camphire, while the NIV and most modern versions have “henna.” The camphire is a small plant or shrub that bears highly scented, cream-colored flowers that hang in clusters and were used for orange dye.
Caperberry flower. The caperberry was a common prickly shrub with large, white flowers that produced small, edible berries. The berries had a reputation for exciting sexual desire, so the caperberry is used in Eccles. 12:5 to allude to the waning sexual potency that comes with age (NIV: “desire is no longer stirred”).
co*ckle flower. The KJV of Job 31:40 refers to a “co*ckle” (NIV: “stinkweed”), a plant whose name is spelled like the Hebrew word for “stink.” This noxious weed with purplish red flowers grew abundantly in Palestinian grain fields.
Crocus. A plant with a long yellow floral tube tinged with purple specks or stripes. The abundant blossoms of the crocus symbolize beauty and splendor (Isa. 35:1).
Fitch. Named in the KJV at Isa. 28:25, 27 (NIV: “caraway”; NRSV: “dill”) and Ezek. 4:9 (NIV: “spelt”). The flower referred to is probably the nutmeg flower, which is a member of the buttercup family; it grew wild in most Mediterranean lands. The plant is about two feet high, with bright blue flowers. The pods of the plant were used like pepper.
Lily. A symbol of fruitfulness, purity, and resurrection, this plant grows from a bulb to a height of three feet, with large white flowers. The term “lily” covers a wide range of flowers. The lily mentioned in Song 5:13 refers to a rare variety of lily that had a bloom similar to a glowing flame. The “lily of the valleys” (Song 2:1) is known as the Easter lily. The lily mentioned in Hos. 14:5 is more like an iris. The water lily or lotus was a favorite flower in Egypt and was used to decorate Solomon’s temple (1Kings 7:19, 22, 26; 2Chron. 4:5). The “lilies of the field” (Matt. 6:28) probably were numerous kinds of colorful spring flowers such as the crown anemone (see NIV: “flowers of the field”).
Mint. This aromatic plant, with hairy leaves, has dense white or pink flowers. It is listed with other spices and herbs as something that the Pharisees tithe (Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42).
Myrtle branch. This bush has fragrant evergreen leaves. Its scented white flowers were used for perfumes. The bush grew to considerable height (Zech. 1:8, 10) and is listed among the trees used to build shelters during the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh. 8:15; see also Isa. 41:19; 55:13).
Pomegranate blossom. The blossom of the pomegranate tree is large and orange-red in color. The fruit of the tree was a symbol of fertile and productive land (Num. 13:23; Deut. 8:8; cf. Hag. 2:19) and was used to produce spiced wine (Song 8:2). Pomegranates were part of the decoration that adorned Aaron’s garments (Exod. 28:33–34) and the temple of Solomon (1Kings 7:18–20).
Rose. The Hebrew word translated as “rose” in Song 2:1 is translated as “crocus” in Isa. 35:1. Crocus was probably the family name of this flower.
Saffron. This is a species of crocus. Petals of the saffron were used to perfume banquet halls (cf. Song 4:14).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
Origins,Composition, and Constitution
Origins.The Bible is not unique in offering an account of human origins.Interesting accounts are found in Sumerian (Enki and Ninmah, Hymn toE-engurra), Akkadian (Atrahasis Epic, Enuma Elish), and Egyptiantexts (Pyramid Texts, Instruction of Merikare). These texts provide ahelpful window into the biblical world and show the common concern toexplain the origin and role of humanity in the world.
Onedistinct feature of ancient Near Eastern texts is that they generallyspeak of human origins in a collective sense. Specialists refer tothis phenomenon as polygenesis. Such a collective creation betterserves the purpose of the gods, who have made the human race as alabor force. In the Bible, however, the book of Genesis describes anoriginal human pair who are the progenitors of the human race. Thisphenomenon is referred to as monogenesis. Humanity is not merelycreated to serve and do the work of the gods. Instead, it is aspecial creation of God, intended to bear his image.
Composition.The composition of humanity is described in Gen. 2:7: “The LordGod formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into hisnostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.”Humanity is not distinct from animals in having the breath of life(1:30). Indeed, the description of the composition of humanity isalso quite, well, human. Genesis describes humans as made from thedust. Dust is not fertile, nor is it pliable. It refers to the earthand that which is dead. The wordplay between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah) appears tobe a major focus of the text (2:7) and suggests that the majorconnection being established concerns the first humans as archetypes.
Constitution.Certain passages of Scripture have led interpreters to posit atrichotomous nature of humanity (i.e., mind, body, soul; cf. 2Cor.4:16; 5:1–9; 1Thess. 5:23). Likewise, even though theGreek language can bifurcate the soul (psychē) and the body(sōma), a kind of dualism should not be inferred from this (cf.Matt. 6:25; 27:50; Luke 10:27; 2Cor. 4:11). Either approach isforeign to the unified biblical mind-set. The only dualism in theanthropological perspective of the NT is in the nature of humanity inrelation to Christ’s new creative work.
Formand Function
Form:male and female.Just as God created man (’ish), he also created woman (’ishah)(Gen. 1:26–27). Although woman is initially created as a“suitable helper” (2:18), it should be noted that theunderlying Hebrew term (’ezer) is used almost exclusively inreference to God elsewhere. This suggests that “suitablehelper” does not indicate a difference of essence, value, orstatus.
TheBible describes woman as coming from the “side” of man,probably communicating something about their equality (Gen. 2:21–22).Thus, it should be understood that just as all humanity shares aconnection to the ground, so also a man shares an intimate connectionwith a woman. Although the phrase “one flesh” often istaken as a euphemism, it probably is a remarkably descriptivestatement of the archetypal nature of Adam and Eve (cf. 2:24).
Function:image of God.The distinction between humanity and the other animals created by Godis that humans are created in God’s image. The concept of theimage of God, however, is not unique to the biblical text (Gen.1:26–27; cf. Instruction of Merikare). Throughout the ancientNear East, kings were thought to actually be the image of a god. Inthe Christian understanding, only Christ is the image of God (2Cor.4:4), whereas humanity is created in the image of God. Although thismay imply a kingly role with regard to humanity’s function overthe rest of creation, the main parallel should be seen in how imagesare meant to represent a god’s presence.
Humanityin Pauline Thought
Paul’sconception of humanity is thoroughly eschatological insomuch as hisvision of Christ as the image of God is identified with Christ as“risen Lord.” Christ as the image of God is the finaldestiny of the humanity that is “in Christ” (1Cor.15:23–28; 44–49; Eph. 1:9–10). Because of theeffects of sin, creation has been subjected to futility (Rom.8:19–22), and humanity to death (Rom. 5:12–14; 1Cor.15:21–22). Yet Paul’s outburst of “new creation”(Gal. 6:15; cf. 2Cor. 5:17) indicates his understanding of thecosmological, and therefore anthropological, effects of being unitedwith Christ. Indeed, if God is making the “former things”into “new things” (2Cor. 5:17; cf. Isa. 65:17–19),this new creative act certainly impacts humanity. That reality isalready partially realized in the elimination of distinctions in thispresent “evil age” (Gal. 1:4), for in Christ “thereis neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there maleand female, for you are all one” (Gal. 3:28; cf. 1Cor.12:12–13; Gen. 17). Until the end, the Christian lives in thetension of already beginning to experience the act of new creationand not yet completely disinheriting the effects of sin (Rom.8:18–30; 2Cor. 12:5–10).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
This prayer, found but not named as such in Matt. 6:9–13;Luke 11:2–5 (see also Did. 8.2, which follows the Mattheanversion), is a version of the Jewish Qaddish prayer revised aroundthe theme of the kingdom of God and is a paradigmatic model of prayergiven by Jesus to his followers.
Jesusand Prayer
Prayerwas a key element of Jewish piety and devotion to God. It was a largepart of meetings in synagogues, annual festivals, worship in thetemple, and daily recitals of the words of the law. Jesus isremembered as withdrawing into lonely and desolate places for timesof prayer (Mark 1:35; 6:46), most poignantly in the garden ofGeth-semane (Mark 14:32–42 pars.). Jesus’ time in thewilderness probably was a time of prayer and fasting as well (Mark1:12–13 pars.). Besides the Lord’s Prayer, another prayerof Jesus celebrates God’s revelation to the disciples aftertheir short itinerant mission (Matt. 11:25–26// Luke10:21).
Theevangelist Luke emphasizes Jesus at prayer more than any other Gospelwriter. Luke’s Gospel portrays Jesus as praying at his baptism(3:21), prior to his selection of the Twelve (6:12–13), priorto Peter’s confession of him as Messiah (9:18), at histransfiguration (9:28–29), prior to his teaching on the Lord’sPrayer (11:1), for Peter (22:32), and twice while on the cross(23:34, 46). Jesus also taught much about prayer, concerning how hisdisciples are or are not to pray and how to show genuine devotion inthe kingdom community without hypocrisy (Mark 11:24–25; Matt.5:44// Luke 6:28; Matt. 6:5–8; Luke 11:5–13;18:1–14; 21:36).
Inthe Fourth Gospel, Jesus’ prayers underscore the unique natureof the relationship between the Father and the Son (John 11:41–42;12:27–28). Jesus’ high priestly prayer for the disciplesconcerns their preservation and the role of the Holy Spirit in theirlives (17:1–26). A distinctive characteristic of Jesus’prayers is that God is addressed by the Aramaic word abba (“father”),and this became common in early Christian worship (Rom. 8:15; Gal.4:6).
TheLord’s Prayer: Matthew and Luke
TheLord’s Prayer takes distinct forms in Matthew and in Luke (seetable 2). The differences in the two prayers might be attributable toJesus teaching two different versions. More likely, Matthew and Lukeboth knew the prayer from a common source (written or oral), andMatthew’s version is a more liturgical elaboration of Luke’sshorter and more “original” version. Matters arecomplicated somewhat by the fact that later Christian scribes had apropensity for harmonizing the two prayers and sometimes amended themin their respective manuscripts. Both prayers agree that (1)Godis the Holy Father, (2)the kingdom is yet to come in itsfullness, (3)followers of Jesus depend on God for their dailyprovisions, (4)followers of Jesus depend on God forforgiveness, (5)which is reciprocated in the forgiveness ofothers, and include (6)the supplication that God not let themfall into the final tribulation.
Table2. The Lord’s Prayer in Matthew and Luke
Matthew6:9-13….Luke 11:2-4
OurFather in heaven,….Father,
hallowedbe your name,….hallowed be your name,
yourkingdom come,….your kingdom come.
yourwill be done, on earth as it is in heaven….
Giveus today our daily bread….Give us each day our daily bread.
Andforgive us our debts,….Forgive us our sins,
aswe also have forgiven our debtors….for we also forgiveeveryone who sins against us.
Andlead us not into temptation,….And lead us not into temptation.
Butdeliver us from the evil one….
Foryour is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen. [addedin some later manuscripts; see NIV mg.]….
TheLord’s Prayer: The Petitions
Theprayer can be broken up into a number of petitions. First is thepetition addressed to God as Father and self-sanctifier. God isinvoked as Father, and his name represents both his character as aloving father and his authority as the master over all creation. Theprayer is theocentric, and it reads literally “let your name besanctified,” which is a plea that God’s holiness willbecome more and more evident. The Lord’s Prayer is not somekind of “I want” list, but rather a burst of praiseexpressing the hope that God’s sheer goodness and Godness willbe acknowledged by all.
Thesecond petition is for God to finally establish his kingdom. The“kingdom of God” is more akin to God’s reign, rule,or government. It is referred to rarely in the OT (e.g., Dan. 2:44;Obad. 21); much more prominent is the theme of God as “king.”In many of the psalms God already is king of Israel and the nations(e.g., Pss. 93–99), and yet the prophets could look forward tothe day when Yahweh would again show himself to be king preciselythrough his deliverance of Israel, which would be the ultimateexpression of the kingly power (e.g., Isa. 52:7; Zech. 14:9). Theprayer for the coming of the kingdom of God is a prayer for God toestablish his reign or rule in its final and full manifestation onearth. Although the kingdom was partially present during Jesus’ministry by virtue of his exorcisms and healings (e.g., Mark 1:15;Luke 11:20), it still awaits its final consummation. Matthew’sversion has “on earth as it is in heaven” and mayindicate a millennial view of the kingdom as supplanting earthlykingdoms, resulting in the transformation of the present age. Thepetition does not promote escapism from the world but rather pointstoward its eventual redemption and transformation by the gloriouspower of heaven becoming a reality upon the earth.
Thirdis the petition for daily provision of physical needs. The “dailybread” petition looks to God as the provider and caregiver ofhis people. Elsewhere in the Sermon on the Mount/Plain, Jesuspreaches dependence on God as a means of escaping the worry and lureof wealth and money (Matt. 6:25–33// Luke 12:22–34).Bread was a powerful symbol for sustenance and life (e.g., Prov.22:9; Lam. 2:12; John 6:35, 48; Sir. 29:21; 34:25). The petitionassumes that God is interested in the most mundane aspects of humanexistence, and that he gives what is needed, not always what iswanted. God sustains his people in their hour of need as proof of hisfatherly care and compassion.
Fourthis the petition for divine forgiveness in coordination with mutualforgiveness among the community of Jesus’ followers. The prayerdoes not ask God to forgive persons who then in turn forgive others;rather, in reverse, the prayer implies that God forgives in the sameway that humans forgive each other (Matthew) or on the basis ofhumans forgiving each other (Luke). The role of mutual forgivenesswithin the new covenant community is spelled out clearly by Paul inColossians: “Bear with each other and forgive one another ifany of you has a grievance against someone. Forgive as the Lordforgave you” (Col. 3:13).
Fifthis the petition to be spared eschatological tribulation and themalevolence of Satan. The word peirasmos can mean “testing,”“trial,” “temptation,” or even “tribulation”or “ordeal.” The prayer could constitute a plea for helpin the face of personal trials and struggles in the believer’slife and in the journey of discipleship (e.g., 1Cor. 10:13;James 1:2), or it could denote a request to be kept from theeschatological ordeal that will precede the final and fullestablishment of the kingdom of God(e.g., Mark 14:36, 38; Rev. 3:10). Importantly, what is feared inthis prayer is not experiencing the peirasmos but rather succumbingto it—the fear of failure. In addition, the prayer asks to bedelivered from ho ponēros, “evil,” or (more likely)“the evilone” (cf. Matt. 5:39)—that is, the devil or Satan. Godtests his people to strengthen them and prove their faithfulness,while Satan tempts people to subdue and destroy them. This prayeracknowledges the fragility and helplessness of the human state in theface of human, spiritual, and cosmic evil. The prayer seeksliberation from evil in the coming reign of God’seschatological kingdom.
TheLord’s Prayer: The Theology
Thetheological framework, ethical exhortation, and social dynamicscreated or presupposed by the prayer are as follows.
First,God is the Father of the followers of Jesus. This is axiomatic in theGospels and is repeated by the Christian prayer that addresses Godthe Father as “Abba” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).
Second,an overarching importance is attached to the kingdom of God as thecontext in which all prayer is prayed. The tension of the prayer—thevery fact of needs and the threat of continuing perils—existsonly because God’s plan to restore Israel and renew creationhas not yet been put into full effect. God’s kingdom has brokeninto the world through the work of the Son of God and the giving ofthe Holy Spirit, and yet it still awaits a final consummation, whenGod is “all in all” (1Cor. 15:28) and finallyrepossesses the world for himself. The prayer presupposes the “now”and the “not yet” of God’s saving action andbalances prayers of triumph and lament in light of currenttemptations and the coming victory of God.
Third,in this prayer salvation not only is spiritual (understood as goingto heaven when one dies) but also involves the physical well-being ofa person and healthy relationships within the believing community.Just as God is concerned with physical human needs, so should humansbe with their fellow humans. If human beings forgive, then God alsoforgives them. Human relations are to mirror the values of heaven andthe vision of the kingdom.
Fourth,the world order currently exists in partial subjugation to evilpowers opposed to God’s rule, which is simply part of the diresituation of “this age.” The prayer presupposes anapocalyptic worldview characterized by dualism (God/Satan, good/evil,present/future, etc.), the necessity of encountering and perseveringagainst evil, and divine intervention to put the world order rightand replace it with the kingdom of God.
Fifth,discipleship involves a variety of traits and characteristics. Thisprayer depicts the disciple as trusting and as exhibiting faith inGod’s purpose and plan. The prayer presumes that disciplescling to God in dependence upon him in their day-to-day need. Theprayer assumes that disciples try to imitate God in reflectinggoodness, love, holiness, and peace in their respective communities.The prayer also admonishes endurance in the face of trials andpersistence (not repetitiveness) in the discipline of prayer.
Sixth,although the prayer does not have an explicit Christology, one can befound implicitly. It seems implied that Jesus is a mediator betweenthe Father and the disciples, and that he possesses an important rolein the final manifestation of the kingdom. It is, after all, thedisciples of Jesus who are promised a special place in the kingdomand a special relationship with the God of Israel.
Summary
TheLord’s Prayer has remained a common thread in the devotionallife of followers of Jesus for two millennia because it is simple,memorable, poignant, and yet profound. It is not the prayer of anelite few; it belongs to all who cry out to God as Father and see theway to God in Jesus Christ, the exalted Lord and Messiah of Israel.As teachings of Jesus hold immeasurable significance for the life,faith, praxis, and serviceof his followers, this prayerencapsulates a motif of Jesus’ own mission: God as king andthelove of God for his own people.
Origins,Composition, and Constitution
Origins.The Bible is not unique in offering an account of human origins.Interesting accounts are found in Sumerian (Enki and Ninmah, Hymn toE-engurra), Akkadian (Atrahasis Epic, Enuma Elish), and Egyptiantexts (Pyramid Texts, Instruction of Merikare). These texts provide ahelpful window into the biblical world and show the common concern toexplain the origin and role of humanity in the world.
Onedistinct feature of ancient Near Eastern texts is that they generallyspeak of human origins in a collective sense. Specialists refer tothis phenomenon as polygenesis. Such a collective creation betterserves the purpose of the gods, who have made the human race as alabor force. In the Bible, however, the book of Genesis describes anoriginal human pair who are the progenitors of the human race. Thisphenomenon is referred to as monogenesis. Humanity is not merelycreated to serve and do the work of the gods. Instead, it is aspecial creation of God, intended to bear his image.
Composition.The composition of humanity is described in Gen. 2:7: “The LordGod formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into hisnostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.”Humanity is not distinct from animals in having the breath of life(1:30). Indeed, the description of the composition of humanity isalso quite, well, human. Genesis describes humans as made from thedust. Dust is not fertile, nor is it pliable. It refers to the earthand that which is dead. The wordplay between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah) appears tobe a major focus of the text (2:7) and suggests that the majorconnection being established concerns the first humans as archetypes.
Constitution.Certain passages of Scripture have led interpreters to posit atrichotomous nature of humanity (i.e., mind, body, soul; cf. 2Cor.4:16; 5:1–9; 1Thess. 5:23). Likewise, even though theGreek language can bifurcate the soul (psychē) and the body(sōma), a kind of dualism should not be inferred from this (cf.Matt. 6:25; 27:50; Luke 10:27; 2Cor. 4:11). Either approach isforeign to the unified biblical mind-set. The only dualism in theanthropological perspective of the NT is in the nature of humanity inrelation to Christ’s new creative work.
Formand Function
Form:male and female.Just as God created man (’ish), he also created woman (’ishah)(Gen. 1:26–27). Although woman is initially created as a“suitable helper” (2:18), it should be noted that theunderlying Hebrew term (’ezer) is used almost exclusively inreference to God elsewhere. This suggests that “suitablehelper” does not indicate a difference of essence, value, orstatus.
TheBible describes woman as coming from the “side” of man,probably communicating something about their equality (Gen. 2:21–22).Thus, it should be understood that just as all humanity shares aconnection to the ground, so also a man shares an intimate connectionwith a woman. Although the phrase “one flesh” often istaken as a euphemism, it probably is a remarkably descriptivestatement of the archetypal nature of Adam and Eve (cf. 2:24).
Function:image of God.The distinction between humanity and the other animals created by Godis that humans are created in God’s image. The concept of theimage of God, however, is not unique to the biblical text (Gen.1:26–27; cf. Instruction of Merikare). Throughout the ancientNear East, kings were thought to actually be the image of a god. Inthe Christian understanding, only Christ is the image of God (2Cor.4:4), whereas humanity is created in the image of God. Although thismay imply a kingly role with regard to humanity’s function overthe rest of creation, the main parallel should be seen in how imagesare meant to represent a god’s presence.
Humanityin Pauline Thought
Paul’sconception of humanity is thoroughly eschatological insomuch as hisvision of Christ as the image of God is identified with Christ as“risen Lord.” Christ as the image of God is the finaldestiny of the humanity that is “in Christ” (1Cor.15:23–28; 44–49; Eph. 1:9–10). Because of theeffects of sin, creation has been subjected to futility (Rom.8:19–22), and humanity to death (Rom. 5:12–14; 1Cor.15:21–22). Yet Paul’s outburst of “new creation”(Gal. 6:15; cf. 2Cor. 5:17) indicates his understanding of thecosmological, and therefore anthropological, effects of being unitedwith Christ. Indeed, if God is making the “former things”into “new things” (2Cor. 5:17; cf. Isa. 65:17–19),this new creative act certainly impacts humanity. That reality isalready partially realized in the elimination of distinctions in thispresent “evil age” (Gal. 1:4), for in Christ “thereis neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there maleand female, for you are all one” (Gal. 3:28; cf. 1Cor.12:12–13; Gen. 17). Until the end, the Christian lives in thetension of already beginning to experience the act of new creationand not yet completely disinheriting the effects of sin (Rom.8:18–30; 2Cor. 12:5–10).
Both the OT and the NT view wealth as ultimately a result ofGod’s blessing (Prov. 10:22). Abraham shows the right attitudeby refusing to accept plunder from the king of Sodom, recognizing Godas the sole source of his riches (Gen. 14:23). Solomon’s wealthwas seen as God’s favor (1Kings 3:13). Wealth and richesare said to be in the house of persons “who fear the Lord”(Ps. 112:1–3). However, material success alone is notnecessarily an indication of God’s approval, nor is poverty asign of God’s disfavor. Fundamentally, neither poverty norwealth can be superficially tied to divine displeasure or favor.
Balancedview.The Bible articulates a balanced view of wealth. It warns againsthaving an arrogant attitude by failing to acknowledge that the sourceof wealth is God (Deut. 8:17–18). There is danger in trustingin riches (Pss. 52:7; 62:10). The rich are charged not to be haughty,and to set their hopes not on uncertain riches but rather on God(1Tim. 6:17–18). The love of money is described as theroot of all kinds of evil (1Tim. 6:9–10), and it istherefore extremely difficult for a rich person to enter the kingdomof God (Matt. 19:24). The foolishness of materialism, making richesthe center of one’s life, is shown in the parable of thewealthy farmer (Luke 12:15–21). Instead of monetary greed, thespirit of contentment is commended, because even if lacking on thematerial level, one still has the Lord (Luke 12:15; Phil. 4:11; Heb.13:5). Material possessions should be gained rightly; effort anddiligence are required (Gen. 3:19; Prov. 10:4). Obtaining wealththrough dishonesty and ill-gotten gains is denounced and condemned(Prov. 11:26; 13:11; Jer. 17:11; Mic. 6:12).
God-centeredperspective.Wealth and material possessions are to be viewed from a God-centeredperspective. God is the one who provides everything; thus we shouldtrust him for our daily needs (Matt. 6:25–34; Luke 11:3). Job’sconfession in a time of loss, “The Lord gave and the Lord hastaken away; may the name of the Lord be praised,” shows anadmirable attitude to emulate (Job 1:21). God is the owner of allthings, and we are simply stewards and administrators of God’swealth. We need to remember that one day we will be accountable forthe use of our wealth (1Cor. 10:31). Jesus teaches us to seekthe kingdom of God first rather than his material blessings (Luke12:31–33). Anything that draws us away from serving God shouldbe avoided. We cannot serve both God and mammon (Matt. 6:24). Ourtreasures are to be in heaven, meaning that our central focus shouldbe on matters pertaining to the kingdom: “Where your treasureis, there your heart will be also” (Luke 12:32–34).
Responsibilityand generosity.With the possession of wealth comes the duty to give generously tothose in need (Prov. 11:24; 28:27). Prosperity is given as a means todo good; thus we ought to be rich in good deeds (1Tim. 6:18).Although it is a duty of the covenant community to take care of theneedy in the OT, it still emphasizes the voluntary heart (Deut.15:5–11). In 2Cor. 9:7, Paul presents the principle ofgiving in the NT: “Each of you should give what you havedecided in your heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion,for God loves a cheerful giver.” It should be not an exactionbut a willing gift (9:5).
TheChristian should emulate Jesus: “Though he was rich, yet for[our] sake he became poor, so that [we] through his poverty mightbecome rich” (2Cor. 8:9). Therefore, material offeringsto Christ should not be a burden (1Cor. 9:11). Sacrificialgiving is an expression of love to the Lord (2Cor. 9:12). Italso generates thanksgiving to God from those who receive it (2Cor.9:11). Worldly wealth should also be used for evangelistic purposes(Luke 16:8). If we are faithful in the use of money, we can betrusted with the kingdom’s spiritual riches (Luke 16:12–13).Although riches do not have eternal value in themselves, their properuse has eternal consequences (Luke 12:33; 1Tim. 6:19). One ofthe qualifications of a church overseer is to be free from the loveof money, and a deacon must not pursue dishonest gain (1Tim.3:3, 8). A good name is to be chosen over great riches (Prov. 22:1).James condemns as sinful the attitude of favoring the wealthy overthe poor. Nonpreferential love is the answer to prejudicialfavoritism (James 2:1–9).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
The site of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7;cf. Luke 6:17–49). The mount is not specifically identified inthe Gospels, but traditionally it is located at Karn Hattin (itsancient name, “Eremos,” means “solitary” inGreek), a hill near Capernaum, on the northwest shore of the Sea ofGalilee.
Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).
Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).
The word “providence” comes from the Latin wordprovidentia, which means “foresight.” However, the moderntheological use of the term refers not to foresight or foreknowl-edgeperse but rather to how God continues to sustain and guide hiscreation. There is no single term in either the OT or the NT thattranslates as “providence.” The one time the word occursin the NIV (Job 10:12), the Hebrew word (peqqudah) is one that theNIV in other places usually translates with words such as “care,”“charge,” or “oversight.” The concept ofdivine providence comes not from any one word but rather fromnumerous statements in the Bible that speak of God’s continuingsupervision of his world. The biblical data can perhaps best beorganized under four headings: created order, world history,salvation history, and individual history. These headings are,however, not discrete; they continually intersect.
CreatedOrder
Scripturetestifies in numerous places to God’s ongoing supervision ofhis creation. The psalms play a special role here. As one commentatorhas remarked, there are no nature lyrics in the psalms, onlyadmiration and awe at how God runs his world. God actively cares forthe land and waters it, causes grass to grow, plants trees, and makessure that they are well watered (Pss. 65:9; 104:14, 16). God bringsdarkness on the land and tells the sun when to set and when to rise(Ps. 104:19–20). God is the zookeeper who makes sure all theanimals are fed (Ps. 104:27). Every birth of every living creature isregarded as a new creative work of God, and he constantly renews theface of the earth (Ps. 104:30).
Godblankets the earth with snow and lays down a sheet of frost (Ps.147:16). When the snow and frost melt, it is because God commanded itby his word and sent breezes to make the melting waters flow (Ps.147:18). Hail, snow, clouds, and stormy winds do their Master’sbidding (Ps. 148:8). God commands the morning to dawn and keeps thesnow and hail in storehouses, ready to be deployed on the day ofbattle (Job 38:12, 22–23). The sea waves roar because God stirsthem up (Jer. 31:35). God even speaks of being in a covenantrelationship with his creation (Jer. 33:20, 25).
Inthe NT, we find that Jesus Christ himself sustains “all thingsby his powerful word” (Heb. 1:3). In him “all things holdtogether” (Col. 1:17).
WorldHistory
Whathappens on the world scene is under God’s sovereign control. Ifthe nations are scattered over the world and speak differentlanguages, it is because God made it so (Gen. 11:1–9). Goddetermines whether the nations are blessed or cursed (Gen. 12:3). Godis the one who has apportioned each nation’s inher-i-tance andhas established their boundaries (Deut. 32:8). Yahweh is the God ofIsrael, which is his special possession, but he has also appointeddeities for the other nations to worship (Deut. 4:19 [evidently falsegods, but still under Yahweh’s sovereignty]). He judges theworld and carries out justice for the peoples, foils the plans of thenations, forms the hearts of all people, reigns over the nations andguides them (Pss. 9:8; 33:10, 15; 47:8; 67:4).
Itis by God’s sanction that kings reign, and a king’s heartis like a watercourse, which God can redirect at will (Prov. 8:15;21:1). God “does as he pleases with the powers of heaven andthe peoples of the earth” (Dan. 4:35). All thrones, powers,rulers, and authorities “were created through him and for him”(Col. 1:16). God is actively working to bring the whole universe andall peoples and nations under one head, his Son, Christ Jesus (Eph.1:10).
SalvationHistory
Withinworld history, God has also worked through one particular people, theIsraelites, to accomplish his redemptive purposes. When Joseph toldhis brothers that what they had intended to do to him for evil, Godhad intended for good, for “the saving of many lives”(Gen. 50:20), he may not have fully realized how much his words werein accord with, and could even be said to summarize, redemptivehistory. God took the harm that Joseph’s brothers intended andused it to fulfill the promises that he had made years earlier toAbraham with regard to what would happen to his descendants (Gen.12:1–3). In the early chapters of Exodus, God’ssovereignty over the “forces of nature” intersects withhis deliverance of the Israelites in the plagues that he brings onthe Egyptians. Of course, God had raised up Pharaoh for the verypurpose of displaying his own glory in victory over Pharaoh and “allthe gods of Egypt” (Exod. 9:16; 12:12; cf. Rom. 9:17).
Throughoutthe ensuing Israelite history, God demonstrates his providential carefor the Israelites. The Jews return from their Babylonian captivitybecause God raised up Cyrus, even though Cyrus did not acknowledgehim (Isa. 44:28–45:13), for the very purpose of issuing thedecree that allowed them to return. Even in narratives in which God’sname is not mentioned, such as the book of Esther, we are tounderstand that God is directing the action, and certainly thenarrator wants us to connect the account ofthe origin of thefestival of Purim (“lots”) with the idea that “thelot is cast into the lap, but its every decision is from the Lord”(Prov. 16:33).
Inthe NT the act that secures our redemption, the crucifixion of Jesus,is not an unforeseen occurrence that God makes the best of; rather,the death of Jesus is that which he himself would “accomplish”(Luke 9:31 NRSV [NIV: “bring to fulfillment”]). No onetakes Jesus’ life from him; he lays it down of his own accord(John 10:18). Jesus even gives Judas Iscariot directions on the nightof his betrayal (John 13:27). What happens in the crucifixion is inaccord with “God’s deliberate plan and foreknowledge”(Acts 2:23) and with what his “power and will had decidedbeforehand should happen” (4:28).
IndividualHistory
Jesuspromises that for those who seek the kingdom of God, “all thesethings will be given to you as well” (Matt. 6:33). If God feedsthe birds of the air and clothes the grass of the field, much morewill he take care to feed and clothe us (Matt. 6:26, 30). Indeed, “inall things God works for the good of those who love him, who havebeen called according to his purpose” (Rom. 8:28).
Both the OT and the NT view wealth as ultimately a result ofGod’s blessing (Prov. 10:22). Abraham shows the right attitudeby refusing to accept plunder from the king of Sodom, recognizing Godas the sole source of his riches (Gen. 14:23). Solomon’s wealthwas seen as God’s favor (1Kings 3:13). Wealth and richesare said to be in the house of persons “who fear the Lord”(Ps. 112:1–3). However, material success alone is notnecessarily an indication of God’s approval, nor is poverty asign of God’s disfavor. Fundamentally, neither poverty norwealth can be superficially tied to divine displeasure or favor.
Balancedview.The Bible articulates a balanced view of wealth. It warns againsthaving an arrogant attitude by failing to acknowledge that the sourceof wealth is God (Deut. 8:17–18). There is danger in trustingin riches (Pss. 52:7; 62:10). The rich are charged not to be haughty,and to set their hopes not on uncertain riches but rather on God(1Tim. 6:17–18). The love of money is described as theroot of all kinds of evil (1Tim. 6:9–10), and it istherefore extremely difficult for a rich person to enter the kingdomof God (Matt. 19:24). The foolishness of materialism, making richesthe center of one’s life, is shown in the parable of thewealthy farmer (Luke 12:15–21). Instead of monetary greed, thespirit of contentment is commended, because even if lacking on thematerial level, one still has the Lord (Luke 12:15; Phil. 4:11; Heb.13:5). Material possessions should be gained rightly; effort anddiligence are required (Gen. 3:19; Prov. 10:4). Obtaining wealththrough dishonesty and ill-gotten gains is denounced and condemned(Prov. 11:26; 13:11; Jer. 17:11; Mic. 6:12).
God-centeredperspective.Wealth and material possessions are to be viewed from a God-centeredperspective. God is the one who provides everything; thus we shouldtrust him for our daily needs (Matt. 6:25–34; Luke 11:3). Job’sconfession in a time of loss, “The Lord gave and the Lord hastaken away; may the name of the Lord be praised,” shows anadmirable attitude to emulate (Job 1:21). God is the owner of allthings, and we are simply stewards and administrators of God’swealth. We need to remember that one day we will be accountable forthe use of our wealth (1Cor. 10:31). Jesus teaches us to seekthe kingdom of God first rather than his material blessings (Luke12:31–33). Anything that draws us away from serving God shouldbe avoided. We cannot serve both God and mammon (Matt. 6:24). Ourtreasures are to be in heaven, meaning that our central focus shouldbe on matters pertaining to the kingdom: “Where your treasureis, there your heart will be also” (Luke 12:32–34).
Responsibilityand generosity.With the possession of wealth comes the duty to give generously tothose in need (Prov. 11:24; 28:27). Prosperity is given as a means todo good; thus we ought to be rich in good deeds (1Tim. 6:18).Although it is a duty of the covenant community to take care of theneedy in the OT, it still emphasizes the voluntary heart (Deut.15:5–11). In 2Cor. 9:7, Paul presents the principle ofgiving in the NT: “Each of you should give what you havedecided in your heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion,for God loves a cheerful giver.” It should be not an exactionbut a willing gift (9:5).
TheChristian should emulate Jesus: “Though he was rich, yet for[our] sake he became poor, so that [we] through his poverty mightbecome rich” (2Cor. 8:9). Therefore, material offeringsto Christ should not be a burden (1Cor. 9:11). Sacrificialgiving is an expression of love to the Lord (2Cor. 9:12). Italso generates thanksgiving to God from those who receive it (2Cor.9:11). Worldly wealth should also be used for evangelistic purposes(Luke 16:8). If we are faithful in the use of money, we can betrusted with the kingdom’s spiritual riches (Luke 16:12–13).Although riches do not have eternal value in themselves, their properuse has eternal consequences (Luke 12:33; 1Tim. 6:19). One ofthe qualifications of a church overseer is to be free from the loveof money, and a deacon must not pursue dishonest gain (1Tim.3:3, 8). A good name is to be chosen over great riches (Prov. 22:1).James condemns as sinful the attitude of favoring the wealthy overthe poor. Nonpreferential love is the answer to prejudicialfavoritism (James 2:1–9).
The blossoms of seed-bearing plants that contain the plant’s reproductive organs. Used generally, “flowers” refers to the colorful array of blossoms that grew mostly in the open fields of the Holy Land. Numerous kinds of wild flowers could be found in the plains and mountains of Palestine. When winter rains were followed by the moderate temperatures of spring, renewal abounded (Song 2:11–12). Early spring blossoms presented an array of vibrant color and form. As early as January, cyclamen poured forth pink, white, and lilac blossoms, followed by various shades of red and pink of the crown anemones, poppies, and mountain tulips. The flowers of the diverse tuberous plants of the lily family also added to the colorful mosaic. Summer brought fields of chamomile and chrysanthemums, with their yellow and white daisylike flowers. The blossoms from plants such as mints, mustards, and other native herbaceous plants, along with those of flowering trees, shrubs, and field flowers, provided ample nectar for bees in the land of milk and honey (Num. 13:27). Healing or soothing ointments and various perfumes were produced from the essential oils extracted from the crushing of blossoms from a variety of flowers.
Flower Imagery
Traditionally, the language of flowers functions to illustrate some prominent themes, such as love and beauty. Flower imagery in descriptions of the tabernacle, of Solomon’s temple, and in the Song of Solomon develops the themes of beauty, purity, sweetness, and love (Song 2:1–5; 5:13; Isa. 28:4). The Song of Solomon is set in a garden scene where the sensuous quality of flowers—their colors, shapes, and scents, their delicate touch—are analogous to the captivating sexuality of physical love. The spring setting assures that the flowers are at their pinnacle of brilliance and the air is filled with the fragrance of vine blossoms (Song 2:12–13).
Used metaphorically, flowers can also refer to transience, pride, restoration, and the glory of the holy and eternal. Such references are found in both Testaments. The short life of flowers is representative of the brevity and fragility of human life on earth (Job 14:2; Ps. 103:15; Isa. 40:6–8; 1Pet. 1:24). After a brief moment of splendor, decline and decay are close behind. Such is the metaphor used in psalms, by the prophets, and in the NT for the life of a person who flourishes like the flower, is like the grass one day, but is gone the next day.
As surely as flower imagery points out our human mortality, it also serves to illustrate the judgment of the proud or ungodly, as when Isaiah prophesies the speedy downfall of the kingdom of Israel like flowers being trampled under-foot (Isa. 28:1–3), turned to dust (5:24), or cut off with pruning knives (18:5). Nahum sees God’s power to rebuke his enemies in his ability to dry up seas and rivers and to make the many flowers of Carmel and Lebanon wilt (Nah. 1:4). James applies the flower imagery to describe the sudden departure of the rich person, passing away as quickly as the flowers of the field, whose beauty perishes under the burning heat of the sun (James 1:10–11).
The usual contexts of this flower imagery are judgment on the proud and the wicked, whose deeds will be short-lived. The insignificant and contemptible deeds of the wicked are contrasted with God’s power; our human transience and frailty with God’s permanence (Ps. 103:15); and our human weakness with the eternal word of God (Isa. 40:6, 8; 1Pet. 1:24–25).
The flower can also represent a blessing. The righteous are compared to the flowering or flourishing of a plant (Isa. 5:24; 18:5; 28:1–4), since the flowering of a plant represents the peak of its life process, its most glorious moment. This beautifully pictures the restoration themes of the prophets as they utilize flower imagery. Isaiah’s words “The desert and the parched land will be glad; the wilderness will rejoice and blossom. Like the crocus, it will burst into bloom; it will rejoice greatly and shout for joy” (Isa. 35:1–2; cf. 27:6) are one example of God’s restorative ability to turn a wasteland into a garden. Hosea illustrates this theme: “I will be like the dew to Israel; he will blossom like a lily. Like a cedar of Lebanon he will send down his roots” (Hos. 14:5). The psalmists also sing of the righteous, not the wicked, flourishing like grass or the flower (Pss. 72:7, 16; 92:12–14). Proverbs too reminds us that the righteous will “flourish,” or break forth and sprout like foliage (Prov. 14:11).
Flowers Named in the Bible
The Bible often identifies flowering plants by a more generic name rather than mentioning specific flowers. Sometimes context can help in determining more specific species. According to 1Kings 7:19–20, 26, lily blossoms, along with pomegranates, adorned the top of the bronze columns that stood before King Solomon’s temple. In a musical aspect, three psalms are identified as those to be sung to the tune “Lilies” (Pss. 45; 69; 80).
The most frequently mentioned specific flowers are traditionally translated “lily” and “rose” (though these are probably not accurate renderings since these flowers are not native to the region and so would have been unfamiliar to most readers). Many commentators believe that the phrase “lilies of the field” referred to the showy, attractive springtime flowers that grow profusely in the plains, pastures, and hills of the Carmel and Sharon regions. These flowers can include ranunculus, anemone, cyclamen, tulip, hyacinth, narcissus, crocus, iris, and orchid. The tulip, asphodel, star-of-Bethlehem, hyacinth, and related narcissus, daffodil, crocus, and iris inhabit the rocky ground and dry places of the hill country. The “lily of the valleys” of Song 2:1–2 is probably the blue hyacinth.
Consider Jesus’ words “Observe how the lilies of the field grow; they do not toil nor do they spin, yet I say to you that not even Solomon in all his glory clothed himself like one of these” (Matt. 6:28–29 NASB). Although these flowers may not be true lilies but rather one of the numerous showy spring flowers such as the crown anemone, Jesus proclaims that the beauty of a single flower in a meadow was more striking than all the riches of Solomon, and that the flower did not concern itself with working and getting riches to be clothed. Jesus’ comments about flowers demonstrate that their beauty was appreciated in Israel.
The flowers listed below are specifically named in various Bible versions.
Almond blossoms. The almond tree is among the first of flowering trees to bloom in the spring. Almond blossoms were part of the almond-tree design on the seven-branched lampstands of the tabernacle (Exod. 25:33–34; 37:19–20). In Eccles. 12:5, almond tree blossoms are likely an allegorical reference to an elderly person’s hair turning white like the almond tree.
Camphire flower. In Song 1:14; 4:13, the KJV refers to camphire, while the NIV and most modern versions have “henna.” The camphire is a small plant or shrub that bears highly scented, cream-colored flowers that hang in clusters and were used for orange dye.
Caperberry flower. The caperberry was a common prickly shrub with large, white flowers that produced small, edible berries. The berries had a reputation for exciting sexual desire, so the caperberry is used in Eccles. 12:5 to allude to the waning sexual potency that comes with age (NIV: “desire is no longer stirred”).
co*ckle flower. The KJV of Job 31:40 refers to a “co*ckle” (NIV: “stinkweed”), a plant whose name is spelled like the Hebrew word for “stink.” This noxious weed with purplish red flowers grew abundantly in Palestinian grain fields.
Crocus. A plant with a long yellow floral tube tinged with purple specks or stripes. The abundant blossoms of the crocus symbolize beauty and splendor (Isa. 35:1).
Fitch. Named in the KJV at Isa. 28:25, 27 (NIV: “caraway”; NRSV: “dill”) and Ezek. 4:9 (NIV: “spelt”). The flower referred to is probably the nutmeg flower, which is a member of the buttercup family; it grew wild in most Mediterranean lands. The plant is about two feet high, with bright blue flowers. The pods of the plant were used like pepper.
Lily. A symbol of fruitfulness, purity, and resurrection, this plant grows from a bulb to a height of three feet, with large white flowers. The term “lily” covers a wide range of flowers. The lily mentioned in Song 5:13 refers to a rare variety of lily that had a bloom similar to a glowing flame. The “lily of the valleys” (Song 2:1) is known as the Easter lily. The lily mentioned in Hos. 14:5 is more like an iris. The water lily or lotus was a favorite flower in Egypt and was used to decorate Solomon’s temple (1Kings 7:19, 22, 26; 2Chron. 4:5). The “lilies of the field” (Matt. 6:28) probably were numerous kinds of colorful spring flowers such as the crown anemone (see NIV: “flowers of the field”).
Mint. This aromatic plant, with hairy leaves, has dense white or pink flowers. It is listed with other spices and herbs as something that the Pharisees tithe (Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42).
Myrtle branch. This bush has fragrant evergreen leaves. Its scented white flowers were used for perfumes. The bush grew to considerable height (Zech. 1:8, 10) and is listed among the trees used to build shelters during the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh. 8:15; see also Isa. 41:19; 55:13).
Pomegranate blossom. The blossom of the pomegranate tree is large and orange-red in color. The fruit of the tree was a symbol of fertile and productive land (Num. 13:23; Deut. 8:8; cf. Hag. 2:19) and was used to produce spiced wine (Song 8:2). Pomegranates were part of the decoration that adorned Aaron’s garments (Exod. 28:33–34) and the temple of Solomon (1Kings 7:18–20).
Rose. The Hebrew word translated as “rose” in Song 2:1 is translated as “crocus” in Isa. 35:1. Crocus was probably the family name of this flower.
Saffron. This is a species of crocus. Petals of the saffron were used to perfume banquet halls (cf. Song 4:14).
The blossoms of seed-bearing plants that contain the plant’s reproductive organs. Used generally, “flowers” refers to the colorful array of blossoms that grew mostly in the open fields of the Holy Land. Numerous kinds of wild flowers could be found in the plains and mountains of Palestine. When winter rains were followed by the moderate temperatures of spring, renewal abounded (Song 2:11–12). Early spring blossoms presented an array of vibrant color and form. As early as January, cyclamen poured forth pink, white, and lilac blossoms, followed by various shades of red and pink of the crown anemones, poppies, and mountain tulips. The flowers of the diverse tuberous plants of the lily family also added to the colorful mosaic. Summer brought fields of chamomile and chrysanthemums, with their yellow and white daisylike flowers. The blossoms from plants such as mints, mustards, and other native herbaceous plants, along with those of flowering trees, shrubs, and field flowers, provided ample nectar for bees in the land of milk and honey (Num. 13:27). Healing or soothing ointments and various perfumes were produced from the essential oils extracted from the crushing of blossoms from a variety of flowers.
Flower Imagery
Traditionally, the language of flowers functions to illustrate some prominent themes, such as love and beauty. Flower imagery in descriptions of the tabernacle, of Solomon’s temple, and in the Song of Solomon develops the themes of beauty, purity, sweetness, and love (Song 2:1–5; 5:13; Isa. 28:4). The Song of Solomon is set in a garden scene where the sensuous quality of flowers—their colors, shapes, and scents, their delicate touch—are analogous to the captivating sexuality of physical love. The spring setting assures that the flowers are at their pinnacle of brilliance and the air is filled with the fragrance of vine blossoms (Song 2:12–13).
Used metaphorically, flowers can also refer to transience, pride, restoration, and the glory of the holy and eternal. Such references are found in both Testaments. The short life of flowers is representative of the brevity and fragility of human life on earth (Job 14:2; Ps. 103:15; Isa. 40:6–8; 1Pet. 1:24). After a brief moment of splendor, decline and decay are close behind. Such is the metaphor used in psalms, by the prophets, and in the NT for the life of a person who flourishes like the flower, is like the grass one day, but is gone the next day.
As surely as flower imagery points out our human mortality, it also serves to illustrate the judgment of the proud or ungodly, as when Isaiah prophesies the speedy downfall of the kingdom of Israel like flowers being trampled under-foot (Isa. 28:1–3), turned to dust (5:24), or cut off with pruning knives (18:5). Nahum sees God’s power to rebuke his enemies in his ability to dry up seas and rivers and to make the many flowers of Carmel and Lebanon wilt (Nah. 1:4). James applies the flower imagery to describe the sudden departure of the rich person, passing away as quickly as the flowers of the field, whose beauty perishes under the burning heat of the sun (James 1:10–11).
The usual contexts of this flower imagery are judgment on the proud and the wicked, whose deeds will be short-lived. The insignificant and contemptible deeds of the wicked are contrasted with God’s power; our human transience and frailty with God’s permanence (Ps. 103:15); and our human weakness with the eternal word of God (Isa. 40:6, 8; 1Pet. 1:24–25).
The flower can also represent a blessing. The righteous are compared to the flowering or flourishing of a plant (Isa. 5:24; 18:5; 28:1–4), since the flowering of a plant represents the peak of its life process, its most glorious moment. This beautifully pictures the restoration themes of the prophets as they utilize flower imagery. Isaiah’s words “The desert and the parched land will be glad; the wilderness will rejoice and blossom. Like the crocus, it will burst into bloom; it will rejoice greatly and shout for joy” (Isa. 35:1–2; cf. 27:6) are one example of God’s restorative ability to turn a wasteland into a garden. Hosea illustrates this theme: “I will be like the dew to Israel; he will blossom like a lily. Like a cedar of Lebanon he will send down his roots” (Hos. 14:5). The psalmists also sing of the righteous, not the wicked, flourishing like grass or the flower (Pss. 72:7, 16; 92:12–14). Proverbs too reminds us that the righteous will “flourish,” or break forth and sprout like foliage (Prov. 14:11).
Flowers Named in the Bible
The Bible often identifies flowering plants by a more generic name rather than mentioning specific flowers. Sometimes context can help in determining more specific species. According to 1Kings 7:19–20, 26, lily blossoms, along with pomegranates, adorned the top of the bronze columns that stood before King Solomon’s temple. In a musical aspect, three psalms are identified as those to be sung to the tune “Lilies” (Pss. 45; 69; 80).
The most frequently mentioned specific flowers are traditionally translated “lily” and “rose” (though these are probably not accurate renderings since these flowers are not native to the region and so would have been unfamiliar to most readers). Many commentators believe that the phrase “lilies of the field” referred to the showy, attractive springtime flowers that grow profusely in the plains, pastures, and hills of the Carmel and Sharon regions. These flowers can include ranunculus, anemone, cyclamen, tulip, hyacinth, narcissus, crocus, iris, and orchid. The tulip, asphodel, star-of-Bethlehem, hyacinth, and related narcissus, daffodil, crocus, and iris inhabit the rocky ground and dry places of the hill country. The “lily of the valleys” of Song 2:1–2 is probably the blue hyacinth.
Consider Jesus’ words “Observe how the lilies of the field grow; they do not toil nor do they spin, yet I say to you that not even Solomon in all his glory clothed himself like one of these” (Matt. 6:28–29 NASB). Although these flowers may not be true lilies but rather one of the numerous showy spring flowers such as the crown anemone, Jesus proclaims that the beauty of a single flower in a meadow was more striking than all the riches of Solomon, and that the flower did not concern itself with working and getting riches to be clothed. Jesus’ comments about flowers demonstrate that their beauty was appreciated in Israel.
The flowers listed below are specifically named in various Bible versions.
Almond blossoms. The almond tree is among the first of flowering trees to bloom in the spring. Almond blossoms were part of the almond-tree design on the seven-branched lampstands of the tabernacle (Exod. 25:33–34; 37:19–20). In Eccles. 12:5, almond tree blossoms are likely an allegorical reference to an elderly person’s hair turning white like the almond tree.
Camphire flower. In Song 1:14; 4:13, the KJV refers to camphire, while the NIV and most modern versions have “henna.” The camphire is a small plant or shrub that bears highly scented, cream-colored flowers that hang in clusters and were used for orange dye.
Caperberry flower. The caperberry was a common prickly shrub with large, white flowers that produced small, edible berries. The berries had a reputation for exciting sexual desire, so the caperberry is used in Eccles. 12:5 to allude to the waning sexual potency that comes with age (NIV: “desire is no longer stirred”).
co*ckle flower. The KJV of Job 31:40 refers to a “co*ckle” (NIV: “stinkweed”), a plant whose name is spelled like the Hebrew word for “stink.” This noxious weed with purplish red flowers grew abundantly in Palestinian grain fields.
Crocus. A plant with a long yellow floral tube tinged with purple specks or stripes. The abundant blossoms of the crocus symbolize beauty and splendor (Isa. 35:1).
Fitch. Named in the KJV at Isa. 28:25, 27 (NIV: “caraway”; NRSV: “dill”) and Ezek. 4:9 (NIV: “spelt”). The flower referred to is probably the nutmeg flower, which is a member of the buttercup family; it grew wild in most Mediterranean lands. The plant is about two feet high, with bright blue flowers. The pods of the plant were used like pepper.
Lily. A symbol of fruitfulness, purity, and resurrection, this plant grows from a bulb to a height of three feet, with large white flowers. The term “lily” covers a wide range of flowers. The lily mentioned in Song 5:13 refers to a rare variety of lily that had a bloom similar to a glowing flame. The “lily of the valleys” (Song 2:1) is known as the Easter lily. The lily mentioned in Hos. 14:5 is more like an iris. The water lily or lotus was a favorite flower in Egypt and was used to decorate Solomon’s temple (1Kings 7:19, 22, 26; 2Chron. 4:5). The “lilies of the field” (Matt. 6:28) probably were numerous kinds of colorful spring flowers such as the crown anemone (see NIV: “flowers of the field”).
Mint. This aromatic plant, with hairy leaves, has dense white or pink flowers. It is listed with other spices and herbs as something that the Pharisees tithe (Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42).
Myrtle branch. This bush has fragrant evergreen leaves. Its scented white flowers were used for perfumes. The bush grew to considerable height (Zech. 1:8, 10) and is listed among the trees used to build shelters during the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh. 8:15; see also Isa. 41:19; 55:13).
Pomegranate blossom. The blossom of the pomegranate tree is large and orange-red in color. The fruit of the tree was a symbol of fertile and productive land (Num. 13:23; Deut. 8:8; cf. Hag. 2:19) and was used to produce spiced wine (Song 8:2). Pomegranates were part of the decoration that adorned Aaron’s garments (Exod. 28:33–34) and the temple of Solomon (1Kings 7:18–20).
Rose. The Hebrew word translated as “rose” in Song 2:1 is translated as “crocus” in Isa. 35:1. Crocus was probably the family name of this flower.
Saffron. This is a species of crocus. Petals of the saffron were used to perfume banquet halls (cf. Song 4:14).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).
Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.
Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).
Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).
Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).
The biblical writers proclaim that only one God exists, yetthey also refer to three persons as “God.” The Father,the Son, and the Holy Spirit are all God. Furthermore, these threepersons relate to one another as self-conscious individuals. Jesusprays to the Father (John 17). The Father speaks from heavenconcerning the Son (Matt. 3:17; Luke 3:22). Jesus vows to send theSpirit as “Advocate” after his ascension, and he will dowhat Jesus himself did while he was among us (John 16:7–8). Thechallenge of Christian theology, therefore, is to formulate adoctrine of God that captures all these elements, each of whichsurfaces in both Testaments.
OldTestament
Inthe OT, evidence for the Trinity appears mostly at the implicitlevel. Yahweh is called “Father” in Isaiah (63:16; 64:8),Jeremiah (3:4, 19; 31:9), and Malachi (2:10). Isaiah declares, “Butyou are our Father, though Abraham does not know us or Israelacknowledge us; you, Lord, are our Father, our Redeemer from of oldis your name” (Isa. 63:16). Yahweh identifies himself as“Father” implicitly when he claims Israel as his “son”(Hos. 11:1), and the same principle applies to Ps. 2:7, where Goddeclares to his anointed, “You are my son; today I have becomeyour father.” These cases do not compare in numbers with the NTevidence, but a person thought of as “God the Father”certainly appears in the OT.
Messianictexts of the OT introduce us to God the Son. In Isa. 9:6 a “childis born” who will be called “Wonderful Counselor, MightyGod, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.” The day of“Immanuel,” or “God with us,” is foreshadowedin Isa. 7:14 (cf. Matt. 1:22), while Isa. 40:3–5 anticipatesthe appearance of the Lord “in the wilderness” (cf. Matt.3:3). Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with theclouds of heaven” being given “authority, glory andsovereign power” (Dan. 7:13–14). In Ps. 110:1 Yahweh saysto David’s “Lord,” “Sit at my right handuntil I make your enemies a footstool for your feet.”
Similarly,the OT seems to distinguish the Spirit of God from Yahweh whileimplying the Spirit’s own personality. Genesis 1:2 makes thatcase, as does Exod. 31:3, where Yahweh fills Bezalel with the “Spiritof God” (cf. Exod. 35:31; Num. 11:29). In 1Sam. 16:14 acontrast is made between the “Spirit of the Lord” thatleaves Saul and an “evil spirit from the Lord” thattorments him; also we find a repentant David pleading that God wouldnot take away his “Holy Spirit” (Ps. 51:11). The Spiritcan be put on persons by God, with the result that they prophesy(Isa. 61:1; Joel 2:28–29) and do what pleases him (Ezek.36:26–27). In the OT, therefore, we see two persons (the Sonand the Holy Spirit) who are both God and also distinguishable fromone to whom they answer and by whom they are sent.
NewTestament
TheNT contains abundant evidence for “God the Father,” oftenbecause of Jesus’ teaching. The “Father” appearsseveral times in the Sermon on the Mount (e.g., Matt. 5:16; 6:6–9,14, 18, 26, 32; 7:11). Matthew 7:21 stands out because of Jesus’reference to “my Father who is in heaven,” by which heidentifies himself as the Son (see also Matt. 15:13; 16:17; 18:10;and Luke 24:49). Paul’s greetings normally come from God theFather and the Lord Jesus Christ, as seen in Rom. 1:7: “Graceand peace to you from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ”(also 1Cor. 1:3; 2Cor. 1:2; Gal. 1:1–3; 1Tim.1:2; 2Tim. 1:2). Paul introduces the Father and the Son in1Cor. 8:6: “For us there is but one God, the Father, fromwhom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord,Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live”(see also 1Cor. 15:24; 2Cor. 11:31; Eph. 1:3; Phil.2:22). Other significant texts include Heb. 1:5; 1Pet. 1:2–3;in the latter, the scattered believers are those “who have beenchosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through thesanctifying work of the Spirit, to be obedient to Jesus Christ andsprinkled with his blood.... Praise be to the Godand Father of our Lord Jesus Christ!” The NT evidence for “Godthe Father” is clear.
Biblicaltexts that point to the deity of Christ supply evidence for thesecond claim: the Son is God. Some of the texts listed above say asmuch, but one can take this case further. In context, John’sprologue refers to Jesus as the “Word” and proclaims thathe was “with God” and “was God” (John 1:1).Jesus also relates to the Father in ways that imply his own deity, ashe declares in John 10:30, “I and the Father are one.”After significant doubting, Thomas confesses the deity of Christ inJohn 20:28: “My Lord and my God!” NT passages thatidentify Jesus as the “Son of God” point to his deity, asPeter does in Matt. 16:16: “You are the Messiah, the Son of theliving God.” Even demons identify Jesus as the Son. They callout, “What do you want with us, Son of God? ...Have you come here to torture us before the appointed time?”(Matt. 8:29; cf. Mark 5:7). The so-called Christ Hymn of Phil. 2:6–11puts Jesus on the level with God, saying that he did not consider“equality with God something to be used to his own advantage.”The author of Hebrews declares that Jesus is “the radiance ofGod’s glory and the exact representation of his being”(1:3). Colossians 1:15–16 says that Jesus is the “imageof the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation” and theone by whom “all things were created,” and Col. 1:19states that “God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell inhim.” According to Titus 2:13, Jesus is “our great Godand Savior.” The entire sequence of Rev. 4–5 highlightsthe deity of Christ, culminating in the praise “To him who sitson the throne and to the Lamb be praise and honor and glory andpower, for ever and ever!” as both the Enthroned One and theLamb are worshiped as God (5:13–14).
TheNT writers underscore both the deity and the distinctive personalityof the Holy Spirit. Jesus is conceived in Mary’s womb by theSpirit’s power (Matt. 1:18–20), and when Jesus isbaptized, the Spirit descends upon him as a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark1:10). Jesus drives out demons by the Spirit, and one dare not speakagainst the Spirit when he does so (Matt. 12:28–32). Luke’sGospel puts added emphasis on the ministry of the Spirit, as we alsosee in Acts. He empowers various people to praise and prophesy (Luke1:41, 67) and to be witnesses for Christ (Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17–18,38). Sinners can lie to the Holy Spirit (Acts 5:3, 9), and the HolySpirit bears witness along with the apostles to the risen Christ(5:32). In John’s Gospel, the Spirit becomes the counselor andteacher of the disciples, reminding them of their Lord’sinstructions (John 14:26; 16:13). The Spirit brings assurance ofsonship (Rom. 8:16) and helps disciples when they pray (8:26). Thisperson even knows the very thoughts of God (1Cor. 2:11).Accordingly, the Great Commission requires baptism in the name of theFather, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). All three membersof the Trinity have a part in the advancement of the kingdom, theSpirit no less than the Father and the Son.
Relationshipsbetween Father, Son, and Spirit
Theevidence considered thus far demonstrates that three persons arecalled “God” in Scripture: the Father, the Son, and theHoly Spirit. But the Scriptures also point to a chain of command intheir relationship to one another. The Son obeys the Father, and theSpirit proceeds from the Father and the Son to apply the work of thecross to the church. This “functional subordination” ofthe Son to the Father, some might argue, would follow simply from theanalogy chosen by God to reveal himself to us. The “Son”would obey his “Father,” not vice versa, though theyshare a common dignity as God, just as a human father and son share acommon humanity. But the NT writers expressly tell us that theyrelate to each other in this way. In Matt. 11:27 (cf. Luke 10:22)Jesus announces, “All things have been committed to me by myFather” (cf. John 3:35; 5:22). The latter transfers authorityto the former as his subordinate. The Father even (for a season)knows more than the Son regarding the last days: “About thatday or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son,but only the Father” (Matt. 24:36), though he also dignifiesthe Son: “For the Father loves the Son and shows him all hedoes” (John 5:20). The Son’s commitment to please hisheavenly Father is a prominent theme of the NT, as Jesus declares inJohn 5:19: “The Son can do nothing by himself; he can do onlywhat he sees his Father doing, because whatever the Father does theSon also does.” No text brings out this dependence of the Sonupon the Father more clearly than Heb. 5:7–8, where the Son issaid to have “offered up prayers and petitions with ferventcries and tears to the one who could save him from death, and he washeard because of his reverent submission. Son though he was, helearned obedience from what he suffered.” It is debated bytheologians whether this functional subordination relates only to theperiod of the Son’s earthly ministry, or whether it is aneternal subordination.
TheSpirit, though equal in personality and dignity with the Father andthe Son, proceeds from them to apply the work of the cross andempower the church for ministry. In John 14:26 Jesus says, “TheAdvocate, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, willteach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said toyou.” In John 15:26 Jesus announces that he also sends theSpirit out: “When the Advocate comes, whom I will send to youfrom the Father—the Spirit of truth who goes out from theFather—he will testify about me.” The Spirit only conveyswhat he has received: “He will not speak on his own; he willspeak only what he hears, and he will tell you what is yet to come”(John 16:13). The same “chain of command” appears in John16:15, where Jesus says, “All that belongs to the Father ismine. That is why I said the Spirit will receive from me what he willmake known to you.”
TrinitarianHeresies
TheFather, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are God, while beingdistinguishable persons. The Son obeys the Father; and these twopersons of the Trinity send out the Holy Spirit to implement ourdeliverance from sin. A defensible explanation of the Trinity willrespect all these dynamics, taking special care not to illustratethem with misleading images or simply lapse into various forms ofpolytheism. One of the earliest heresies of the church came fromMarcion, a second-century theologian who distinguished the Father ofJesus from the supposedly vindictive God of the OT, which leaves uswith more than one God. Later came the heresies of modalism andsubordinationism (or Arianism). Modalists claimed that the persons ofthe Trinity are no more than guises worn by the one person of God.One minute God is the Father, the next he is the Son or the HolySpirit. Subordinationists such as Arius (died AD 336) went beyond thefunctionality of the NT’s chain of command, arguing that theSon and the Holy Spirit are not themselves God but are essentiallysubordinate to him. Jehovah’s Witnesses have fallen into thislatter error, suggesting that Jesus is “a god” but notthe Creator God.
Theseearly heresies pressed the church to refine its understanding of theTrinity. In his response to Marcion’s error, Tertullian coinedprecise language to describe the persons of the Godhead, so thatGod’s “threeness” and “oneness” arepreserved. He used the Latin term trinitas to describe the ChristianGod and argued that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit sharethe same “substance.” The Son (also, then, the HolySpirit) is not simply of “like substance” (Gk.hom*oiousios) with God the Father, but rather is “consubstantial”(Gk. hom*oousios) with him: the Son is God, and so is the Holy Spirit.The Nicene Creed of AD 325 incorporated this explanation and, in sodoing, also set aside the idea that either the Son or the Holy Spiritwas created by God, as the Arian heresy requires. Nicaea alsorejected adoptionism, which regards Jesus as a man whom God promotedby endowing him with supernatural powers.
Eachof these heresies—plus, say, the strict monotheism ofIslam—attempts to relieve the tension seen among the claimsthat constitute the Trinity; however, orthodox Christians willremember that tensions and paradoxes are not automaticcontradictions. No philosopher or theologian has ever expresslydemonstrated that the Trinity entails logical nonsense, andChristianity’s detractors carry the burden of proof in thiscase. It is one thing to allege that an idea is contradictory, andquite another thing to show with an argument that it is so. On thepositive side, the Trinity must remain a central doctrine of thechurch because it affects all the others, especially the entire workof redemption. If God is not triune, then Jesus is not God; and if heis not God, then he cannot save us, nor can we worship him as ourLord. The sacrifice that he offers for our sin would not, in thatcase, be supremely valuable. Consider also the application to us ofwhat Christ has done. If the Holy Spirit is not God, then he cannotspeak for God as one who knows perfectly his thoughts and gives usthe word of God, our Bible. Scripture indicates that God is triune,and sinners need him to be so.
A “type” (from Gk. typos) can be defined as abiblical event, person, or institution that serves as an example orpattern for events, persons, or institutions in the later OT or inthe NT. Typology is based on the assumption that there is a patternin God’s work in the OT and in the NT that forms apromise-fulfillment relationship. In the OT there are shadows ofthings that will be more fully revealed in the NT. Thus, the OT flowsinto the NT as part of a continuous story of salvation history. Whatis promised in the OT is fulfilled in the NT. This can beaccomplished through prophetic word or through propheticaction/event. The use of prophetic action/event to predict orforeshadow future actions/events involves typology. Typology is partof the promise-fulfillment scheme that connects the two Testaments.
Anumber of biblical interpreters note that three primarycharacteristics of types can be identified. First, there must be somenotable point of resemblance or analogy between the type and itsantitype. Second, there must be evidence that the type was appointedby God to represent the thing typified. Here one must avoid the twoextremes of, on the one hand, saying that a type is a type only whenthe Scripture explicitly calls it such, and, on the other hand, offinding a type “behind every tree.” Third, a type shouldprefigure something in the future. Thus, antitypes in the NT mustpresent truth more fully realized than in the OT.
Typologicalinterpretation of the OT is different from allegorizing a text. Theformer restricts itself to the meaning intended by the originalauthor, whereas the latter reads things into the OT passage (usuallyin connection with messianic prophecy) not initially intended. On theother hand, it should be noted that the OT authors may not alwayshave fully comprehended the long-range fulfillment of theirprophecies. Thus, for example, Ps. 22 reveals King David’strials and tribulations that are later viewed by NT authors asapplicable to the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., the quotation of Ps.22:18 in John 19:24 regarding the soldiers casting lots for Jesus’clothes). David probably did not envision his situation as predictiveof the sufferings of the coming Christ. But the Holy Spirit did, andhe allowed the Gospel authors to make the connection. Thus, typologyis a special form of biblical prophecy, which Jesus seemed to useextensively. Hence, the type is found in the OT, and its antitypeoccurs in the NT.
Moreparticularly, Jesus seemed to perceive himself as the antitype to allthree of the aforementioned possible types. First, Jesus fulfilled inhimself persons in the OT who were types. Thus, Jesus is the ultimateDavid, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, the heavenly Son of Man ofDan. 7, and the Suffering Servant of Isa. 52:13–53:12. Second,with regard to famous OT events, Jesus reenacted the new exodus andpassed the test in the new wilderness wanderings (Matt. 4:1–11pars.), and then he proclaimed a new law from the mountain, as didMoses (Matt. 5–7). Third, Jesus revised or replaced OTinstitutions such as the sacrificial system and the feasts of Yahweh(most notably Passover) at his death, and at his resurrection hebecame the new temple of God.
TheNT continues Jesus’ typological interpretation of the OT,seeing in him the supreme antitype of OT symbolism. Thus, forexample, Paul sees Christ as the second Adam (Rom. 5:12–21),whose church is the new Israel, the eschatological people of God(1Cor. 10:1–13). Matthew perceives Jesus to be the newMoses (Matt. 1–10). Note the following comparisons:
Moses,the Old Testament Type vs. Jesus, Matthew’s Antitype to Moses:
Moseswas born to deliver his people. Jesus was born to save his people.
Pharoahtried to kill the infant Moses. Herod tried to kill the infant Jesus.
Moseswas “baptized” in the exodus. Jesus was baptized in thenew “exodus.”
Moseswas tempted in the wilderness. Jesus was tempted in the wildnerness.
Mosesperformed ten plagues. Jesus performed ten miracles.
Mosesreceived the law on the mount. Jesus gave a new law on the mount.
Lukeunderstands Jesus to be the new David (Luke 1:32). Hebrews assertsthat Jesus has inaugurated the new covenant (chap. 8), the truepriesthood (chaps. 7–8; 10), whose death is the fulfillment andreplacement of the sacrificial system of the OT (chaps. 9–10).But perhaps the most extensive usage of typology in the NT occurs inRev. 21–22 (cf. Rev. 19), where the new creation is theantitype of the old creation of Gen. 1–3 (see table 10).
Table10. New Creation Typology in Revelation 21–22
Sinfulpeople are scattered (Gen. 1-3). God’s people unite to singhis praises (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:6-7).
The“marriage” of Adam and Eve takes place in the garden(Gen. 1-3). The marriage of the second Adam and his bride, thechurch has come (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:7, 21:2, 9).
Godis abandoned by sinful people (Gen. 1-3). God’s people (newJerusalem, bride of Christ) are made ready for God; marriage of theLamb. (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:7-8, 21:2, 9-21).
Exclusionfrom bounty of Eden (Gen. 1-3). Invitation to marriage supper ofLamb (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:9).
Satanintroduces sin into world (Gen. 1-3). Satan and sin are judged (Rev.21-22; cf. 19:11-21, 20:7-10).
Theserpent deceives humankind (Gen. 1-3). The ancient serpent is bound“to keep him from deceiving the nations (Rev. 21-22; cf.20:2-3).
Godgives humans dominion over the earth (Gen. 1-3). God’s peoplewill reign with him forever (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:4, 6, 22:5).
Peoplerebel against the true God, resulting in physical and spiritual death(Gen. 1-3). God’s people risk death to worship the true Godand thus experience life (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:4-6).
Sinfulpeople are sent away from life (Gen. 1-3). God’s people havetheir names written in the book of life (Rev. 20:4-6, 15; 21:6, 27).
Deathenters the world (Gen. 1-3). Death is put to death (Rev. 20:14;21:4).
Godcreates the first heaven and earth, eventually cursed by sin (Gen.1-3). God creates a new heaven and earth, where sin is nowhere to befound (Rev. 21:1)/
Watersymbolizes chaos (Gen. 1-3). There is no longer any sea (Rev. 21:1).
Sinbrings pain and tears (Gen. 1-3). God comforts his people andremoves crying and pain (Rev. 21:4).
Sinfulhumanity is cursed with wandering (exile) (Gen. 1-3). God’speople are given a permanent home (Rev. 21:3).
Communityis forfeited (Gen. 1-3). Genuine community is experienced (Rev.21-22; cf. 21:3, 7).
Sinfulpeople are banished from the presence of God (Gen. 1-3). God livesamong his people (Rev. 21:3, 7, 22; 22:4).
Creationbegins to grow old and die (Gen. 1-3). All things are made new (Rev.21:5).
Wateris used to destroy wicked humanity (Gen. 1-3). God quenches thirstwith water from the spring of life (Rev. 21:6; 22:1).
“Inthe beginning, God…” (Gen. 1-3). “I am the Alphaand the Omega, the beginning and the end.” (Rev. 21:6).
Sinfulhumanity suffers a wandering exile in the land (Gen. 1-3). God giveshis children an inheritance (Rev. 21:7).
Sinenters the world (Gen. 1-3). Sin is banished from God’s city(Rev. 21:8, 27; 22:15).
Sinfulhumanity is separated from the presence of the holy God (Gen. 1-3). God’s people experience God’s holiness (cubed city = holyof holies) (Rev. 21:15-21).
Godcreates light and separates it from darkness (Gen. 1-3). No morenight or natural light; God himself is the source of light (Rev.21:23; 22:5)
Languagesof sinful humanity are confused (Gen. 1-3). God’s people is amulticultural people (Rev. 21:24, 26; 22:2).
Sinfulpeople are sent away from the garden (Gen. 1-3). The newheaven/earth includes a garden (Rev. 22:2).
Sinfulpeople are forbidden to eat from the tree of life (Gen. 1-3). God’speople may eat freely from the tree of life (Rev. 22:2, 14).
Sinresults in spiritual sickness (Gen. 1-3). God heals the nations(Rev. 22:2).
Sinfulpeople are cursed (Gen. 1-3). The curse is removed from redeemedhumanity, and people become a blessing (Rev. 22:3).
Sinfulpeople refuse to serve/obey God (Gen. 1-3). God’s people servehim (Rev. 22:3).
Sinfulpeople are ashamed in God’s presence (Gen. 1-3). God’speople will “see his face” (Rev. 22:4).
Both the OT and the NT view wealth as ultimately a result ofGod’s blessing (Prov. 10:22). Abraham shows the right attitudeby refusing to accept plunder from the king of Sodom, recognizing Godas the sole source of his riches (Gen. 14:23). Solomon’s wealthwas seen as God’s favor (1Kings 3:13). Wealth and richesare said to be in the house of persons “who fear the Lord”(Ps. 112:1–3). However, material success alone is notnecessarily an indication of God’s approval, nor is poverty asign of God’s disfavor. Fundamentally, neither poverty norwealth can be superficially tied to divine displeasure or favor.
Balancedview.The Bible articulates a balanced view of wealth. It warns againsthaving an arrogant attitude by failing to acknowledge that the sourceof wealth is God (Deut. 8:17–18). There is danger in trustingin riches (Pss. 52:7; 62:10). The rich are charged not to be haughty,and to set their hopes not on uncertain riches but rather on God(1Tim. 6:17–18). The love of money is described as theroot of all kinds of evil (1Tim. 6:9–10), and it istherefore extremely difficult for a rich person to enter the kingdomof God (Matt. 19:24). The foolishness of materialism, making richesthe center of one’s life, is shown in the parable of thewealthy farmer (Luke 12:15–21). Instead of monetary greed, thespirit of contentment is commended, because even if lacking on thematerial level, one still has the Lord (Luke 12:15; Phil. 4:11; Heb.13:5). Material possessions should be gained rightly; effort anddiligence are required (Gen. 3:19; Prov. 10:4). Obtaining wealththrough dishonesty and ill-gotten gains is denounced and condemned(Prov. 11:26; 13:11; Jer. 17:11; Mic. 6:12).
God-centeredperspective.Wealth and material possessions are to be viewed from a God-centeredperspective. God is the one who provides everything; thus we shouldtrust him for our daily needs (Matt. 6:25–34; Luke 11:3). Job’sconfession in a time of loss, “The Lord gave and the Lord hastaken away; may the name of the Lord be praised,” shows anadmirable attitude to emulate (Job 1:21). God is the owner of allthings, and we are simply stewards and administrators of God’swealth. We need to remember that one day we will be accountable forthe use of our wealth (1Cor. 10:31). Jesus teaches us to seekthe kingdom of God first rather than his material blessings (Luke12:31–33). Anything that draws us away from serving God shouldbe avoided. We cannot serve both God and mammon (Matt. 6:24). Ourtreasures are to be in heaven, meaning that our central focus shouldbe on matters pertaining to the kingdom: “Where your treasureis, there your heart will be also” (Luke 12:32–34).
Responsibilityand generosity.With the possession of wealth comes the duty to give generously tothose in need (Prov. 11:24; 28:27). Prosperity is given as a means todo good; thus we ought to be rich in good deeds (1Tim. 6:18).Although it is a duty of the covenant community to take care of theneedy in the OT, it still emphasizes the voluntary heart (Deut.15:5–11). In 2Cor. 9:7, Paul presents the principle ofgiving in the NT: “Each of you should give what you havedecided in your heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion,for God loves a cheerful giver.” It should be not an exactionbut a willing gift (9:5).
TheChristian should emulate Jesus: “Though he was rich, yet for[our] sake he became poor, so that [we] through his poverty mightbecome rich” (2Cor. 8:9). Therefore, material offeringsto Christ should not be a burden (1Cor. 9:11). Sacrificialgiving is an expression of love to the Lord (2Cor. 9:12). Italso generates thanksgiving to God from those who receive it (2Cor.9:11). Worldly wealth should also be used for evangelistic purposes(Luke 16:8). If we are faithful in the use of money, we can betrusted with the kingdom’s spiritual riches (Luke 16:12–13).Although riches do not have eternal value in themselves, their properuse has eternal consequences (Luke 12:33; 1Tim. 6:19). One ofthe qualifications of a church overseer is to be free from the loveof money, and a deacon must not pursue dishonest gain (1Tim.3:3, 8). A good name is to be chosen over great riches (Prov. 22:1).James condemns as sinful the attitude of favoring the wealthy overthe poor. Nonpreferential love is the answer to prejudicialfavoritism (James 2:1–9).
Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).
Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.
Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).
Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).
Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving(forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities ofwomen throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). Thisis reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wifeof noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer offine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including thegathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn withdistaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery(31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear fromthis passage, textile production was a domestic activity, takingplace not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficientlabor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occursas a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in thecraft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).
Inbiblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiberyielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 theproduction of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. Themost abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in thearchaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weightsand spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the woodenparts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1Sam.17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actualtextile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on whichfabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall)and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. Theubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites atteststhe universality of textile production as a home craft in thebiblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into aloom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this storyillustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.
Severalancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usuallya female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, andAthena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was thegoddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, whichincludes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weavinghas been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anachin central Israel (see 2Kings 23:7).
Metaphorically,a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy ofspinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the liliesof the field “do not labor or spin” and yet aremagnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even theartificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).
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1. Thanksgiving Day
Illustration
Andrew Daughters
It’s a very nice thing to be thank-full.When you’re full, thanks is easy to say. But what if you hadn’t a turkey to eat on this Thanksgiving day? What if there were no yams or potatoes, no fixings, cranberries and such. What if there were just barely a little, instead of so all-fired much? Would you then say your thanks to the Father who provided this bountiful earth,and gave us so great a share of it by accident only of birth? There are those in the African deserts and in Asia with little to eat. And in India, where there are millions to whom not being hungry’s a treat. When it comes down to real thanksgiving,remember that part of the word is that very important word, “giving,”not just being full of the bird. There are multitudes here on this planet who today will have nothing to eat, who have only a shack for their shelter, and nothing to wear on their feet. These poor ones of earth are our sisters and brothers, all loved by the Lord. And when we feed them, we feed Jesus. For that we have Jesus’ own word. So let’s have a real thanks giving and give out of thanks to the One who gave for our use his creation and for our salvation, his Son.
2. Parable of the Record
Illustration
"Put your dime in the machine and punch A-3," said the girl. "That's my favorite record."
"Mary, you don't want to hear that again!" said Bill. "They've just played it three times."
"That's all right," said Mary, "on pay day I'm buying that record and I'm going to play it over and over."
"Don't forget you are going to church with me Sunday," said Bill.
"I don't know whether I'm going or not," said Mary. "It's always the same old thing."
"You better go," said Bill, "you need it. After listening to Frankie holler on that record over and over, there are a number of things that should be repeated to you."
It is true that people like best that which is familiar to them and at the same time often reject that which is repetitious. But all people want Christmas to be Christmas, Easter to be Easter and Thanksgiving to be Thanksgiving.
To often they do not see that the joy of the harvest cannot be realized without the labor of spring and the cultivation of summer. The childlike joy of surprise on Christmas morning is the result of careful shopping as well as the use of hard earned money and Easter would not be with us without the crucifixion of Good Friday. There are many things that we learn slowly and by great repetition. Great things have a great price.
3. Keeping the Christian Faith
Illustration
Michael B. Brown
A French prince in the Middle Ages was asked if he were faithful to his wife. He answered: "Yes ...frequently." The line is humorous but the point of the story is anything but. Sometimes in life it is all too difficult to find someone to trust, someone to believe in. Even spouses, parents and dearest of friends can let us down. But the Christian faith teaches that when all the others have come and gone, God remains constant -- "the same yesterday, today and forever." God is always in our corner, always as close as a prayer, always loving us whether or not we deserve it and always willing to carry the heavy end of each of our crosses if asked. "If God so clothes the grass of the fields and feeds the birds of the air, will God not much more take care of you...?"
4. What Should We Do Today?
Illustration
Tony Campolo
At Eastern University, where I taught for so many years, I would constantly encounter students who would ask a simple question: How can I know what God wants me to do with my life? What a question! But I could never answer the question because I'm not sure that Jesus wants us to look that far ahead. I'm convinced that what Jesus calls us to do is to solve this problem: What should I be doing today? He says quite pointedly, "Take no thought for tomorrow what ye shall eat, what ye shall drink. Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof."
Are you going to do what God wants you to do today? That's the ultimate question. Every day you should get up and say, "This is the day that the Lord has made. What does God want me to do? What does God want me to achieve this day?"
5. Looking for Security
Illustration
Charles Schultz
I wish it was that easy for some of us to get rid of our worries, don't you? In a Peanuts cartoon, Linus tells Charlie Brown, "When I hear those coyotes howling at night, it totally depresses me. I start to feel lonely. . . Then I get scared."
Charlie Brown says, "I thought holding onto that blanket made you secure."
Linus replies, "I think the warranty has run out."
That's the problem with most security blankets. Their warranty runs out.
6. What Does Faith Mean for You?
Illustration
Mark Trotter
Arie Brouer was a Reformed pastor, part of the Reformed Church in America. At one time he was the General Secretary of the National Council of Churches. As a Reformed pastor, he was part of the Calvinist tradition, and the tradition that has the strongest emphasis on God's sovereign rule over the whole creation. It was the Calvinists after all who invented predestination to affirm that God is in control of everything. Every single move that we make is controlled by God.
Then Arie Brouer got cancer. A terrible theological problem for any sensitive Christian, but I would think especially so for a Calvinist. His son asked him about it in the most innocent way. "What does faith mean for you now that you are facing this?"
Arie Brouer responded by saying that he had believed in God all of his life, and because he has cancer is no reason for him to stop believing in God. His son said, "But you and mom have spent a lot of your life trying to make this a better place for all people. This is a very strange way to be paid back."
Brouer said to his son, "Steve, I don't believe that God wants me to have cancer. But what I have come to believe during these days is that God can't do anything about it. That raises some very fundamental questions for me about what I have been taught and what I have believed over the years about the almightiness of God. Because if God can't stop this, then I have to come to some new understanding of God's almightiness, or perhaps reject it altogether. I haven't had time to think about this because I am too busy dealing with all sorts of survival questions. But I am going to work on it."
And he did. He counted the number of times God's "almightiness" is mentioned in the New Testament. He discovered it is only ten times. Nine of the ten times are in the Book of Revelation, the last book of the Bible, the vision of the end of history. He said, "I looked at those texts that talk about God's almightiness, and I discovered that every one of them has to do with God's ultimate triumph in history. They say that at the end of history, God's love, and justice, and peace, will prevail. At the end of history, God will prevail in the struggle, and that now God is with us in the struggle. And I said to myself, 'Arie, why in the world haven't you understood this before.'"
7. Tomorrow Will Be Anxious for Itself
Illustration
Eric Ritz
An ancient Chinese parable tells of Old Tan Chang who had a small farm overshadowed by a towering mountain. One day he got the notion to get rid of the mountain. With the help of his wife and sons, he began to hack at the rock around its base. A neighbor walked by and scoffed, "You will never finish the job, old man! There are not enough days in the year for you to do this."
But Tan replied confidently, "I am not as foolish as you think, my friend. I may be old and feeble, but after I am gone, my sons will continue to peck away at the mountain. Then their sons and their sons'' sons will do the same. Since the mountain cannot grow, someday it will be level with the ground, and the sun will shine upon our land."
Many of the problems we cannot eliminate instantly can be moved one piece at a time, one day at a time. Did not Jesus share in Matthew 6:25-34 read a few moments ago, "So do not be anxious about tomorrow, tomorrow will be anxious for itself."
8. Have You Taken Inventory Lately?
Illustration
The renown teacher and author Dr. David McLennon tells a story of his very first job in a small town general store. This was the day before mails and supermarket chains at least it was in his community. At age thirteen he was hired as a handy boy. He would sweep the flour, bag items for customers, put up stock. On one particular Saturday, he recalled, he heard the owner say to one of the clerks "It's that time of the year again, it's time to take inventory." Dr. McLennon wrote that this was a word that had not yet entered into his vocabulary. When an opportune moment arrived, he went up to the kindly older man and asked, Sir, what is an inventory? Patiently the owner explained that it was a time when you made a list of everything that you had from groceries on the shelves to wrapping paper and string. Still somewhat puzzled, the young McLennon then asked, Why?
"Well," responded the owner, "it's easy to forget exactly how much you have each year. Every now and then you have to take an inventory just to see what all you have."
That little story, to me, pretty well sums up what Thanksgiving is all about. It is a time when each of us needs to ask ourselves the question: Have I taken inventory of my life lately? Have I made an effort to count all the things that I do have in life instead of complaining about the things that I don't have. It is a good exercise especially when we are of a mind to brood or whine in self pity. Have you taken inventory lately?
What I am suggesting here is not some shallow "count your blessings" platitude. But from time to time, in a genuine kind of a way, we need to sit down and do some talking to ourselves about all of the gifts and opportunities and challenges that God has given each one of us. Perhaps there is a deep underlying wisdom in the children's poem that says: "Count your blessings one by one, and you might be surprised what the Lord has done."
9. Seven Things to Be Thankful For
Illustration
Seven things to be grateful for:
Forautomaticdishwashers. They make it possible to get out of the kitchen before the family come infortheir after-dinner snacks.
Forhusbands who attack small repair jobs around the house. They usually make them big enough to call in professionals.
Forthe bathtub the one place the family allows Mom some time to herself.
Forchildren who put away their things and clean up after themselves. They're such a joy you hate to see them go home to their own parents.
Forgardening. It's a relief to deal with dirt outside the housefora change.
Forteenagers. They give parents an opportunity to learn a second language.
Forsmoke alarms. They let you know when the turkey's done.
10. Better Not Bitter
Illustration
If we are not thankful then we can become bitter. If we are not thankful, then it becomes too easy to sit around and ponder the question: why me?
Dr. Jim Moore, pastor of St. Luke's UMC in Houston wrote a book entitled "You Can Grow Bitter or You Can Grow Better."He writes that he got the idea for the title from a young woman who once came to him in a most tragic moment in her life. She had tears in her eyes and her knuckles were white as she twisted a handkerchief. She had just received word that her twenty-six year old husband had been killed in a farming accident, leaving her alone with three pre-school age children. One moment he was alive and vibrant, the next moment gone. "I don't know how I am going to be able to get along without him," she sobbed. "But I do know one thing. I can either get bitter or I can get better."
One way that we can get better rather than bitter is to develop a thankful heart. We must learn to be grateful to the Lord with whom we shall spend eternity. Our morning prayer should always begin: O Thou who has given me so much, I pray that you give me yet one more thing a grateful heart.
11. Taking Our Blessings for Granted
Illustration
A story is told of Abraham Lincoln. One day the President summoned to the White House a surgeon in the Army of the Cumberland from the state of Ohio. The major assumed that he was to be commended for some exceptional work. During the conversation Mr. Lincoln asked the major about his widowed mother. She is doing fine, he responded. How do you know asked Lincoln. You haven't written her. And then Lincoln added: "But she has written me. She thinks that you are dead and she is asking that a special effort be made to return your body home."Then theCommander and Chief placed a pen in the young doctor's hand and ordered him to write a letter letting his mother know that he was alive and well.
Oh, the blessings that we take for granted. Oh, the wretchedness of ingratitude. It was Shakespeare who worded it more appropriately than ever we could. He wrote: Blow blow thou winter wind. Thou art not so unkind as man's ingratitude.
12. The Real Meaning of Life
Illustration
Perhaps in the end it is the poet who comes closer to the real meaning of life than any of us could. Wrote poet Courtland Sayers:
5,000 breathless dawns all new;
5,000 flowers fresh in dew.
5,000 sunsets wrapped in gold;
1 million snowflakes served ice cold.
5 quiet friends, 1 baby's love;
1 white sea with clouds above.
1 June night in a fragrant wood,
1 heart that loved and understood.
I wondered when I waked that day in God's name how could I ever pay.
13. The Highest Priority
Illustration
Arthur E. Dean Windhorn
Have you ever been in a hurry and buttoned up a long overcoat with lots of buttons and when you were done, found out that the coat was uneven? What went wrong? I'll tell you what went wrong. When you don't get the first button in the right hole, all the rest are out of sequence too, right?! That's a parable about life. Jesus said it this way in the Sermon on the Mount: "Seek first God's kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well." (Matthew 6:33) If the Lord is not the high priority in your life, then, like the overcoat, so many other things in life will be out of whack as well.
14. Say Gracias!
Illustration
Mike Ripski
The late Roman Catholic priest and prolific writer on the spiritual life, Henri Nouwen, felt God call him from his faculty position at an Ivy League University to live with the poor in South America. In his book, "Gracias!" he writes:
In many of the families I visited, nothing was certain, nothing was secure, MAYBE there would be food tomorrow. MAYBE there would be no sickness tomorrow. Maybe…maybe not. But whatever came to these people, they still greeted life with joy and with "Gracias!" What I presumed from God as my rightful claim, my friends in Peru and Bolivia received as a precious gift. What I treated as common place was for them a joyful surprise. What I trivialized as ordinary, they celebrated with reverence and said, "Gracias!"And slowly I realized what I had all but forgotten and dismissed. All is grace. All is God's gift!
Are those who can't take for granted that they can provide for themselves more likely to trust God to provide? And are they more likely to say, "Gracias!" Thank You?
Gratitude is what comes from our soul when we are freed from worry.
15. My Pastor Will Find Me
Illustration
Leonard Sweet
There were two men shipwrecked on an island. The minute they got to the island, one of them started screaming and yelling, ‘We're going to die! We're going to die! There's no food! NO water! We're going to die!"
The second man, in a quite relaxed manner, propped himself up against a palm tree. He was acting so calmly, it drove the first man crazy. He began to shout, ‘Don't you understand? We're going to die!"
The second man replied, "You don't understand. I make $100,000 a week."
The first man looked at him quite dumbfounded and asked, "What difference does that make? We're on an island with no food and no water. We're going to DIE!"
The second man, with great serenity, answered, "You just don't get it. I make $100,000 a week, and I tithe 10 percent of the $100,000 to the church. I have no worry whatsoever. My pastor will find me!"
16. He Has Never Forsaken Me
Illustration
Eric Ritz
Phillips Brooks, the distinguished Congregational Preacher from Boston, said that he began keeping a diary when he was a 13 year old boy. He was one of 11 children, and what spurred him to keep that diary was that he was sitting at the dinner table one night with his parents and his mother expressed concern about how they were going to pay their bills and how they were going to live. In fact, she fully expected to go to the poor house. Phillips Brooks wrote in his diary that his father looked up from the dinner table and said to his wife, "My dear, I have trusted God for 40 years. He has never forsaken me. I'm not going to distrust Him now. Now, let us give thanks for what we have to eat today."
17. Worry: Hard to Let Loose
Illustration
Eric Ritz
I like the story about the two mountain boys who spotted a bobcat up a tree and decided to have some fun. One said, "I'll shinny up that tree and chase him down, and you put him in a cage."
The other agreed, and the first fellow climbed up the tree. When he reached the right limb, he started shaking, and the cat came tumbling down. The other fellow grabbed the varmint by the back of the neck and tried to put him into a cage. There was a terrible commotion. Dust and fur and skin were flying in all directions. The fellow in the tree called down, "What's the matter, you need help catching a little ol' bobcat?" "No," replied his friend, "I don't need no help catchin' him, but I sure need help turnin' him a-loose."
The problem with worrying is that it is easy to do but so hard to let loose. It is a power that controls our lives.
18. The Laws of the Garbage Truck
Illustration
Barbara Turpish
One day I hopped in a taxi and we took off for the airport. We were driving in the right lane when suddenly a black car jumped out of a parking space right in front of us. My taxi driver slammed on his brakes, skidded, and missed the other car by just inches!
The driver of the other car whipped his head around and started yelling at us. My taxi driver just smiled and waved at the guy. And I mean, he was really friendly. So I asked, 'Why did you just do that? This guy almost ruined your car and sent us to the hospital!'
This is when my taxi driver taught me what I now call, 'The Law of the Garbage Truck.'
He explained that many people are like garbage trucks. They run around full of garbage, full of frustration, full of anger, and full of disappointment. As their garbage piles up, they need a place to dump it and sometimes they'll dump it on you.
Don't take it personally. Just smile, wave, wish them well, and move on. Don't take their garbage and spread it to other people at work, at home, or on the streets.
The bottom line is that successful people do not let garbage trucks take over their day. Life's too short to wake up in the morning with regrets, so…
Love the people who treat you right. Pray for the ones who don't. Life is ten percent what you make it and ninety percent how you take it!
19. A Review of Resources
Illustration
Eric Ritz
The value of a proper perspective on life can never be overstated. I once heard the story of an old Navajo Indian in Arizona who became a very wealthy man when oil was discovered on his land. But wealth did not change him. He went on living just as he had before while the money piled up in the bank. Every now and then, however, the old man would visit the bank and say to the banker, "Crops all dried up; sheep all dead; cattle all stolen." The banker knew exactly what to do. He would take the old man into the vault, seat him at a table, and place several bags of silver dollars in front of him for him to count. After a while the man would come out and say, "Crops fine; sheep all alive; cattle all back." Why the change? He had simply reviewed his resources and reminded himself of what he had to fall back on. This is what believers must do when the pressure comes. When we feel like complaining and murmuring, let us remember who we are in Him and what He has promised us for times of stress.
20. Don’t Worry, God Has Enough!
Illustration
Eric Ritz
On one occasion the famous English preacher, Charles H. Spurgeon, was greatly worried about his ministry in the city of London and if there were necessary resources to maintain this ministry. He became greatly depressed and filled with anxiety. Then God filled his mind with an image that made his anxieties and worries so insignificant. God gave him the image of a mouse in the large grain bins of Egypt under the leadership of Joseph. The mouse was worried about having enough to eat. Then in Spurgeon's mind came the image of a fish in the great river in London and how the fish worried about having enough water to breath and survive. As the images sank deep inside of Spurgeon he began to laugh and said, "Eat away little mouse, swim away little fish. God will provide all we need and more." And then addressing himself, he said, "Stop worrying little man, God has enough and more!"
21. Trouble, but No Sleepless Nights
Illustration
Bill Bouknight
The late Bishop Ernest Fitzgerald used to tell about a man he knew years ago who lived in one of the isolated corners of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Life was hard, and every day his little hillside farm was at the mercy of drought, wind, or cold. Yet he was about the most serene and deeply contented man Bishop Fitzgerald had ever known. So he asked the old mountaineer one day if he had ever had any troubles and if he had ever spent sleepless nights. "Sure, I've had my troubles," he said, "but no sleepless nights. When I go to bed I say, 'Lord, you have to sit up all night anyway. There's no point in both of us losing sleep. You look after things tonight and when tomorrow comes, I'll do the best I can to help you.'"
22. For That I Am Especially Thankful
Illustration
During a harvest festival in India, an old widow arrived at her church with an extraordinarily large offering of rice - far more than the poor woman could be expected to afford. The itinerant pastor of the church did not know the widow well. But he did know that she was very poor and so he asked her if she were making the offering in gratitude for some unusual blessing. "Yes," replied the woman. "My son was sick and I promised a large gift to God if he got well." "And your son has recovered?" asked the pastor. The widow paused. "No," she said. "He died last week. But I know that he is in God's care; for that I am especially thankful."
23. The Gratitude Attitude
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
Rev. John R. Ramsey tells how in one church a certain person provided him with a rose boutonniere for the lapel of his suit every Sunday. At first he really appreciated it but then it sort of became routine. Then one Sunday it became very special.
As he was leaving the Sunday Service a young boy walked up to him and said, "Sir, what are you going to do with your flower?" At first the preacher didn't know what the boy was talking about. When it sank in, he pointed to the rose on his lapel and asked the boy, "Do you mean this?"
The boy said, "Yes, sir. If you're just going to throw it away, I would like it."
The preacher smiled and told him he could have the flower and then casually asked what he was going to do with it. The boy, who was probably no more than 10 years old, looked up at the preacher and said, "Sir, I'm going to give it to my granny. My mother and father divorced last year. I was living with my mother, but she married again, and wanted me to live with my father. I lived with him for a while, but he said I couldn't stay, so he sent me to live with my grandmother. She is so good to me. She cooks for me and takes care of me. She has been so good to me that I wanted to give her that pretty flower for loving me."
When the little boy finished, the preacher could hardly speak. His eyes filled with tears and he knew he had been touched by God. He reached up and unpinned the rose. With the flower in his hand, he looked at the boy and said, "Son, that is the nicest thing that I've ever heard but you can't have this flower because it's not enough. If you'll look in front of the pulpit, you'll see a big bouquet of flowers. Different families buy them for the Church each week. Please take those flowers to your granny because she deserves the very best."
Then the boy made one last statement which Rev. Ramsey said he will always treasure. The boy said, "What a wonderful day! I asked for one flower but got a beautiful bunch of flowers."
That's the thankful spirit. That's the gratitude attitude. And it's that attitude that should guide our giving and our lives. Like that boy's granny, God has blessed us so much. God has been so good to us that giving shouldn't even be a question. It should just flow from us naturally.
24. Thankfulness Can Be a Matter of Perspective
Illustration
How many of us have been jostled and crammed into a tiny airplane seat recently, only to lament delays caused by weather, extra fees demanded by the airlines for overweight bags, or the tiny bag of pretzels that have replaced meals on so many flights? It seems like the collective mood on airplanes is pretty grumpy these days.
But imagine what our ancestors just a few generations ago would have said if we could tell them about our ability to fly from city to city with such ease and frequency?Imagine trying to explain to a settler moving his family across the continent by wagon train that the trip could be done in a number of hours instead of months.Now think of the many citizens of this world who can not afforda luxury such as flight, who may not be able to freely visit family or do business across such vast distances.
Now think about the first time you looked out the window and saw the country sprawling out below you. Maybe it was nighttime and all the lights of the cities and towns were twinkling. Maybe it was daytime and you could see the hedgerows, highways, and the rivers delineating the landscape.Didn't you feel a sense of wonder?Don't you remember thinking, "Wow! That is unbelievable!"?
Along the way, many of us have lost the wonder of things like flying. We should try to keep things in perspective and remain thankful for the amazing things that we enjoy every day in our unbelievable present.
25. First National Thanksgiving Proclamation
Illustration
George Washington
Whereas, it is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and favor; Whereas, both the houses of Congress have, by their joint committee, requested me "to recommend to the people of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer, to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many and signal favors of Almighty God, especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness!"
Now therefore, I do recommend next, to be devoted by the people of the states to the service of that great and glorious being, who is the beneficent Author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be, that we may then all unite in rendering unto Him our sincere and humble thanks for His kind care and protection of the people of this country.
26. The Breakdown of Worries
Illustration
Brian Stoffregen
I read the following in a business magazine: Stress management experts say that only two percent of our "worrying time" is spent on things that might actually be helped by worrying. The figures below illustrate how the other 98 percent of this time is spent:
40% on things that never happen
35% on things that can't be changed
15% on things that turn out better than expected
8% on useless, petty worries
27. My Childhood Promise
Illustration
Charles Swindoll
I recall, as a little barefoot boy with a cowlick of snow-white hair on my forehead, standing erect in my classroom and repeating the "Pledge of Allegiance" one Thanksgiving season. Our nation was at war and times were hard. My teacher had lost her husband on the blood washed shores of Normandy. As we later bowed our heads for prayer she wept aloud. I did too. All the class joined in. She stumbled through one of the most moving expressions of gratitude and praise that ever emerged from a soul plunged in pain. At that time in my young life, I fell strangely in love with Thanksgiving. Lost in sympathy and a boy's pity for his teacher, I walked home very slowly that afternoon. Although only a child, I had profound feelings of gratitude for my country . . . my friends . . . my school . . . my church . . . my family. I swore before God that I would fight to the end to keep this land free from foes who would want to take away America's distinctives and the joys of living in this good land. I have never forgotten my childhood promise. I never shall.
28. She Was Talking to the Doctor
Illustration
David Beckett
A man was seen fleeing down the hall of the hospital just before his operation. A security guard stopped him before he could leave the hospital and asked, "What's the matter?"
The man said, "I heard the nurse say, ‘It's a very simple operation, don't worry, I'm sure it will be all right.'"
"She was just trying to comfort you," said the security guard. "What's so frightening about that?"
"She wasn't talking to me," exclaimed the man. "She was talking to the doctor!"
29. Empty Nest
Illustration
Staff
A construction crew was building a new road through a rural area, knocking down trees as it progressed. A superintendent noticed that one tree had a nest of birds who couldn't yet fly and he marked the tree so that it would not be cut down. Several weeks later the superintendent came back to the tree. He got into a bucket truck and was lifted up so that he could peer into the nest. The fledglings were gone. They had obviously learned to fly. The superintendent ordered the tree cut down. As the tree crashed to the ground, the nest fell clear and some of the material that the birds had gathered to make the nest was scattered about. Part of it was a scrap torn from a Sunday school pamphlet. On the scrap of paper were these words: He careth for you.
30. Manna from Heaven
Illustration
Norman Vincent Peale
Dr. Norman Vincent Peale once met a Dutch gentleman who told him a story of God's great providence during a time of suffering.He was just a child when World War II wreaked havoc on his country of Holland. Food was scarce, and the people of his town were in danger of starving. They were so hungry that they dug up tulip bulbs for food.
The pastor of the local church announced a prayer meeting to call upon God for help. For more than an hour, the people prayed fervently for food. As they prayed, the young boy felt the presence of God in the room, and he knew that God was answering their prayers.
The next morning, food aid flights came roaring over the town, dropping packages full of food. Like manna from heaven, the packages of food saved a starving people and renewed their faith in God's love and providence.
31. Try Christianity
Illustration
Donald Macleod
The famous American editor, Horace Greeley, told of receiving a letter from a woman who wrote: "Our church is in dire financial straits. We've tried everything to keep it going: a strawberry festival, an oyster supper, a donkey party, a turkey dinner, and, finally, a box social. Will you please tells us, Dr. Greeley, how to keep a struggling church from disbanding?" Dr. Greeley wrote back to her a message in two words: Try Christianity!
What did he mean by that? Look at it in this way. The ancient world failed to help men and women meet the problem of life, because, although their wise men could teach, they could not supply the power to put it into practice. The Old Testament prophets could explain the Law of Moses, but were unable to provide the power needed to fulfill it. Then, into the midst of the ages, came this man Jesus and, before the wondering eyes of men and women, he declared, "I am the way, the truth, and the life." These people saw truth coming alive in his amazing personality; and, when his enemies finally killed him, his great spirit was liberated to be wherever needy souls cried out for him. In all the ages since, for all those who have received him as the bread of life by committing their lives to him, he has brought power over their every weakness, victory over every failure, and conduct and character that have made the world a better place in which to live.
32. All Shall Be Well
Illustration
Daniel B. Clendenin
The English mystic and Benedictine nun Juliana of Norwich (1342–1414) had reasons enough to worry. She lived during the Black Death that killed 75 million people in medieval Europe. Many people interpreted the bubonic plague as divine punishment, but not Juliana. In her unapologetically optimistic view of life, she believed that God loved every person and that he would redeem every tear. In her book of visions called Sixteen Revelations of Divine Love — by some accounts the first book published in English that was written by a woman — Juliana wrote one of the most well-known sentences in all of Christian history that's also the perfect antidote to worry.
In her thirteenth vision or "shewing," Juliana concluded that she was wrong to worry about the sins and sorrows of life. Jesus told her that these trials and tribulations were, in fact, "behovely" (from which we get our word "behoove"). Even our sins and anxieties are somehow incumbent uponus. They're part of our human story. Despite "all the pains that ever were, or ever shall be," Juliana believed that God longs to "comforteth readily and sweetly." He does so by reassuring us that, because of the certainty of his boundless love,
"All shall be well, and all shall be well,
and all manner of thing shall be well."
33. Bright and Loud: What Do You Miss?
Illustration
John Killinger
A panel of students at one university was discussing what it's like to be a young person today. They talked of many things - their work, their fears, their ambitions. And then the moderator asked them: "What does it take to get your attention?" One young man was very direct: "Bright and loud," he said. "It's the kind of world we live in, and in that kind of world, that's what it takes."
Bright and loud. Think about that response. It rules out a lot of things, doesn't it? He doesn't notice the different songs of the birds, or the color of wet bark, or the tiny stars that may in actuality be many times the size of our sun. He probably never sees the delicacy of a cat's fur or the eagerness in a child's eyes or the lines in an old woman's face. In fact, he's missing most of the treasures that have always caught the attention of artists and photographers and poets and mystics and musicians.
How many people are like him and miss the most intricate wonders of our environment? Is our secular culture breeding people who have no eye for the lilies of the field, who no longer make the connection between all of these delights and the God who fashioned the world? Has our runaway materialism, with its glut of things inured us to the fragile network of miracles around us, what one Oriental religion calls the "web of jewels?" It would be a pity, wouldn't it, to live in a world of rainbows and geese and wildflowers and never see them, never have our hearts lifted, never make the connection between them and a transcendent Presence presiding over our existence.
34. Jesus, Out of Doors
Illustration
J. Ellsworth Kalas
Jesus lived with nature, and he taught from it. If I want an object lesson, I have to carry it into the pulpit or trust that you and I can blend our imaginations to envision a scene. Jesus had his illustrations at first hand; the people could often reach out and touch them. "Consider the lilies of the field," Jesus said, and the people looked at a hillside just to their right. "A certain man went out to sow seed," Jesus said, and every person in the crowd knew what he was talking about, because they had either sown seed or had seen another do it. "There was a shepherd who lost a sheep": there wasn't a person there but whose acquaintance included someone who had gone searching for such a poor, lost beast.
But the marvel with Jesus is that he took such common elements and touched them with eternity. The people who heard him teach knew all about lilies, farming, and sheep, but now they saw those things as messengers of God's work in the world. G.K. Chesterton said it well:
There was a man who dwelt in the east centuries ago.
And now I cannot look at a sheep or sparrow,
A lily or a cornfield, a raven or a sunset,
A vineyard or a mountain, without thinking of Him.
When Chesterton wrote those words, he wasn't thinking of a tour in the Holy Land, but simply of what the teachings of Jesus had done to his entire outlook on life. Jesus gives a sacredness to the common elements of life.
35. Getting Rid of the Rodent
Illustration
Clovis G. Chappell
Years ago, in the pioneer days of aviation, a pilot was making a flight around the world. After he had been gone for some two hours from his last landing field, he heard a noise in his plane, which he recognized as the gnawing of a rat. He realized that while his plane had been on the ground a rat had gotten in. For all he knew the rat could be gnawing through a vital cable or control of the plane. It was a very serious situation. He was both concerned and anxious. At first he did not know what to do. It was two hours back to the landing field from which he had taken off and more than two hours to the next field ahead. Then he remembered that the rat is a rodent. It is not made for the heights; it is made to live on the ground and under the ground. Therefore the pilot began to climb. He went up a thousand feet, then another thousand and another until he was more than twenty thousand feet up. The gnawing ceased. The rat was dead. He could not survive in the atmosphere of those heights. More than two hours later the pilot brought the plane safely to the next landing field and found the dead rat.
Brothers and sisters in Christ, worry is a rodent. It cannot live in the secret place of the Most High. It cannot breathe in the atmosphere made vital by prayer and familiarity with the Scripture. Worry dies when we ascend to the Lord through prayer and His Word.
36. God Will Provide
Illustration
Eric Ritz
On one occasion the famous English preacher, Charles H. Spurgeon, was greatly worried about his ministry in the city of London and if there were necessary resources to maintain this ministry. He became greatly depressed and filled with anxiety. Then God filled his mind with an image that made his anxieties and worries so insignificant. God gave him the image of a mouse in the large grain bins of Egypt under the leadership of Joseph. The mouse was worried about having enough to eat. Then in Spurgeon's mind came the image of a fish in the great river in London and how the fish worried about having enough water to breath and survive. As the images sank deep inside of Spurgeon he began to laugh and said, "Eat away little mouse, swim away little fish. God will provide all we need and more." And then addressing himself, he said, "Stop worrying little man, God has enough and more!"
The tragedy of most of our lives is that we worry so much about tomorrow that we never claim the resources that God has provided to live today.
NEW
37. God in the Ordinary
Illustration
Once upon a time, there was a far-away land that was ruled by a vicious king. His iron hand reached into every corner of his subjects' lives. Every corner - except one. Try as he might, he couldn't destroy their belief in God.
In his frustration, he finally summoned his advisors and asked them: "Where can I hide God so the people will end up forgetting about him?"
One suggested hiding God on the dark side of the moon. This idea was debated, but was voted down because the advisors feared that their scientists would one day discover a way to travel into space travel and God would be discovered again.
Another suggested burying God in the deepest part of the ocean. But there was the same problem with this idea, so it was voted down.
One idea after another was suggested and debated and rejected. Until finally the oldest and wisest advisor had a flash of insight. "I know," he said, "why don't we hide God where no one will ever even think to look?" And he explained, "If we hide God in the ordinary events of people's everyday lives, they'll never find him!"
And so it was done. And they say people in that land are still looking for God - even today.
38. The Source of Thanksgiving
Illustration
Brett Blair
Remember that wonderful Children's holiday classic "The Grinch Who Stole Christmas." You'll recall in the story how the Grinch enters all the homes by way of their chimneys disguised as Santa Clause. He takes all the presents and ornaments, the trees and stockings, and even their food down to the last morsel. He drags his loot up to his mountain and then looks down upon Whoville with a sinister grin. He is listening for the cries and wailings of the people to start as they wake up on Christmas morning to discover a Christmas lost. What he hears instead surprises him. Up from the town of the Whos comes a joyful Christmas carol. They are singing. "Why?" he asks. It is because, he learns, Christmas resides not in things but in the heart which is thankful. He could not steal their gratitude.
39. Number One on the List
Illustration
Brett Blair
Ivy Lee (1877–1934) was an American publicity expert and worked as a consultant for a number of businesses. One of those was for Charles Schwab, who was then president of Bethlehem Steel. Schwab was obsessed with efficiency and wanted Bethlehem Steel to become more productive. Ivy Lee was brought in.
Schwab asked: “Show me a way to get more things done.”
Lee: “Give me 15 minutes with each of your executives”
Schwab: “How much will it cost me?”
Lee: “Nothing. Unless it works. After three months, you can send me a check for whatever you feel it’s worth to you.”
Schwab agreed and during those 15 minutes with each executive, Lee laid out the following five step method:
- At the end of each working day, write down the fivemost important things you need to accomplish tomorrow. Do not write down more than fivetasks.
- Prioritize thoseitems in order of their true importance.
- When you arrive tomorrow, concentrate only on the first task. Work until the first task is finished before moving on to the second task.
- Approach the rest of your list in the same way. Don’t worry if you’ve only finished one or two by the end of the day; the others can wait.
- Repeat this process every working day.
It’s simple right? Well, Schwab and his team starting using this method. It worked well, very well. After a couple months of outstanding production from his staff Schwab senta $25,000 check to Lee. Adjusted for inflation that's $400,000 today!
Today this simple approach is called theThe Ivy Lee Method. It's amillion dollar productivity approachfor a lot of companies. If we were to apply the Ivy Lee Method to Christianity what would it look like?I think all of would agree that Love God and Love your neighbor would be #1 on the list. But after that? What would come after that. I think this text is a good candidate for #2: So do not worry, saying, 'What shall we eat?' or 'What shall we drink?' or 'What shall we wear?' Rather seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you. Therefore do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will worry about itself. Each day has enough trouble of its own.
In fact isn't that the Ivy Lee method itself?Let's call it the Jesus Method:Trust in God; pursue what is Good, and don't worry about tomorrow. And today your needs will be met.
40. Said the Robin to the Sparrow
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Said the Robin to the Sparrow:
“There is one thing I would really like to know,
Why these anxious human beings
Rush about and worry so.”
Said the Sparrow to the Robin:
“Friend, I think that it must be
That they have no heavenly Father
Such as cares for you and me.”
41. God Is Like a Father
Illustration
King Duncan
For many of us the injustice of this world, combined with the love of the Father, is the best assurance we have of a world beyond this one. Someday, somehow, somewhere accounts must be settled. In Marjorie Rawling's beautiful novel, The Yearling, set in rural Florida, there is a scene in which friends and family gather around the grave of a little handicapped boy named Fodderwing. There was no minister present so one of the men of the community offered up this simple but moving prayer: "Almighty God, it ain't right for us to say what is right. But if we had been making this boy we would never have made him with his back bent and his legs crooked. We would have made him straight and tall like his brothers. But somehow you made it up to him. You gave him a way with critters. It comforts us to know that he is in a place where his being bent doesn't matter no more. We would like to think that you have taken that bent back and those crooked legs and straightened them. And Almighty God, if it ain't asking too much, we pray that you will give him some critters to play with maybe a few redbirds and a squirrel or two. Thy will be done. Amen."
I don't know what heaven will be like. But I know what God is like. He is like a Father who notices a little sparrow fall from the sky and cares for us much, much more than he cares for sparrows. That means even though we still must face obstacles and crises, we do not face them alone, and someday, somehow all that which is hurtful will be turned into that which is helpful, and we shall live with joy in the Father's house forever.
42. Don’t Sweat the Small Stuff
Illustration
King Duncan
A few years back psychologist Richard Carlson wrote a best-selling book titled, Don't Sweat the Small Stuff. Carlson, who died ironically of a heart attack at age 45, got the idea for his book one day while driving his six-year-old daughter home from school. They got caught in rush hour traffic. They spent 40 minutes or so creeping along the freeway. As they sat in their car, Carlson's daughter looked out at all the other cars, also creeping along. And finally, she said, "Daddy, why are all the people mad?"
Her statement caused Carlson to begin looking at all the people stuck there in traffic. He realized that they did have grim, anxious looks on their faces. He knew they probably weren't mad, but they sure didn't look happy. And it caused him to reflect on the causes of their unhappiness. Perhaps they were reviewing where they needed to be and what they needed to do once they got there. Perhaps there were children to pick up, errands to run, dinner to make, work brought home to do. Or perhaps being stuck in traffic gave them the chance to think about things they were anxious about their families, their work, their health, etc. The result was that they looked mad. And so Carlson wrote his book, Don't Sweat the Small Stuff, for he was convinced that most of the things we worry over are really not worth worrying about in the first place.
43. Fear Can Make Us Miserable
Illustration
King Duncan
I remember a story about two little boys whose mother asked them to chase a chicken snake out of the henhouse. They looked everywhere for that snake, but couldn't find it. And the more they looked, the more afraid they got. Until finally, they did find it. When that happened, they fell all over themselves running out of the chicken house.
"Don't you know a chicken snake won't hurt you?" their mother asked.
"Yes, ma'am," one of the boys answered, "but there are some things that will scare you so bad you'll hurt yourself."
Most of us have been there at some time in our lives.
Fear is a terrible thing. Isn't it? All of us are afraid of something. Some of us disguise our fear better than others, but fear can make our lives miserable.
44. Today Is All We Have
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
The talented motion picture director Peter Bogdanovich is well known for what are called “nostalgic” movies. When he made “The Last Picture Show” and “Paper Moon,” someone asked him why he is attracted so much by the past.
Mr. Bogdanovich said, “I like any time better than now. I just don’t like what’s happening today. The music bores me, the cars are ugly, the people are droll. So I retreat to the past.”
I know a lot of people who feel that way -- anytime is better than now, so they retreat to the past or they lose themselves in dreams of the future. The truth is the past is gone and can never be retrieved or re-lived. The future is not yet, and we will have it not by grasping or dreaming of it, but only as it comes to us as a gift.
Today is all we have
Today is all we need,
And today is all we can handle.
45. Planning Tomorrow, Neglecting Today
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
Time management is a needed aspect of life. We waste so much time because we don’t plan our use of it.
But I have a larger problem. I often get so caught up in planning and preparing for tomorrow that I miss today. I seek to stabilize and secure tomorrow at the neglect and expense of today.
Knowing my failure, I am seeking to remember two truths. One, the best thing I can do about tomorrow is also to make today the best it can be. Tomorrow is seldom good if we miss today. The lesson is this: wait until tomorrow to live tomorrow.
Two, tomorrow does not belong to us. It has not yet come. But tomorrow will always be tomorrow. It won’t be today. So what you must be is ready. Manage your time, but live tomorrow tomorrow. Don’t live it today.
46. The Great Gretsky
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
Wayne Gretsky, known to professional hockey fans as “The Great Gretsky,” was being interviewed some time ago. The interviewer pointed out that at age 23 Gretsky was already a multimillionaire, had already broken most of the sports records, and would go down in history as one of the greatest players of all time.
Then the interviewer asked, “Well, Wayne, what can you possibly have to look forward to?” After a brief pause, Gretsky answered, "Tonight's game!"
Despite his accomplishments, he was ready to move on and do what was needed in the moment.
That’s the secret of living life to its hilt -- to be able to concentrate on the task at hand, the immediate responsibility to which we are called. Keep your attention on the present and the past won’t haunt you, nor will the future burden you with fear.
47. Labor For The Lord
Illustration
Glen Pierpoint
Our labor for the Lord is:
- a labor of love (I Thes 1:3).
- a labor not in vain (I Cor 15:58).
- a labor known by Christ (Rev 2:2).
- a labor God does not forget (Heb 6:10).
- a labor which is to be done together (I Cor 3:9).
- a labor for eternal things (Col 1:28-9).
- a labor which is to reward (I Cor 3:8).
- a labor done to be accepted by Him (II Cor 5:9).
- a labor which doesn't have an end (Luke 10:2).
48. Then They Will Understand
Illustration
Doris Stickney
Down below the surface of a quiet pond lived a little colony of water bugs. They were a happy colony, living far away from the sun. For many months they were very busy, scurrying over the soft mud on the bottom of the pond.
They did notice that every once in a while, one of their colony seemed to lose interest in going about with his friends. Clinging to the stem of a pond lily, he gradually moved out of sight and was seen no more.
"Look!" said one of the water bugs to another. "One of our colony is climbing up the lily stalk. Where do you suppose he is going?"
Up, up, up he went slowly. Even as they watched him, the water bug disappeared from sight. His friends waited and waited but he didn't return.
"That's funny!" said one water bug to another.
"Wasn't he happy here?" asked a second water bug. "Where do you suppose he went?" wondered a third. No one had an answer. They were greatly puzzled.
Finally, one of the water bugs, a leader in the colony, gathered his friends together. "I have an idea. The next one of us who climbs up the lily stalk must promise to come back and tell us where he went and why."
"We promise," they said solemnly.
One spring day, not long after, the very water bug who had suggested the plan found himself climbing up the lily stalk. Up, up, up he went. Before he knew what was happening, he had broken through the surface of the water, and fallen onto the broad, green lily pad above.
When he awoke, he looked about with surprise. He couldn’t believe what he saw. A startling change had come to his old body. His movement revealed four silver wings and a long tail. Even as he struggled, he felt an impulse to move his wings. The warmth of the sun dried the moisture from the new body. He moved his wings again and suddenly found himself up above the water. He had become a dragonfly.
Swooping and dipping in great curves, he flew through the air. He felt exhilarated in the new atmosphere. By and by, he lighted happily on a lily pad to rest. Then it was that he chanced to look below to the bottom of the pond. Why, he was right above his old friends, the water bugs! There they were, scurrying about, just as he had been doing some time before.
Then he remembered the promise: "The next one of us who climbs up the lily stalk will come back and tell where he went and why."
Without thinking, he darted down. Suddenly he hit the surface of the water.
"I can't return!" he said in dismay. "At least I tried, but I can't keep my promise. Even if I could go back, not one of the water bugs would know me in my new body. I guess I'll just have to wait until they become dragonflies, too. Then they'll understand what happened to me, and where I went."
And the dragonfly winged off happily into his wonderful new world of sun and air.
49. Storing What We Do Not Need
Illustration
Staff
Jesus did not condemn the man for eating, drinking and being merry, nor even for being rich. Rather the man was called foolish for building bigger barns. The point of the story is that the entrepreneur was planning to store more of his wealth than he needed to eat, drink and be merry. Look again at the words of the story. The man says, "What shall I do for I have nowhere to store my crops?" Not true! He has barns. His problem is that his harvest has been so great that his present storage facilities will not hold all of the grain. So he decides, "I will tear down my barns and build larger ones, and there I will store all my grain. Then and only then will I have ample goods to eat, drink and be merry." Again, not true! He already has ample goods. He does not have to live in the moment. He has barns for his future. They may not be as big as he would like, but he has plenty to eat, drink and be merry. The man already has enough wealth to enjoy Shalom. He has a sense of well-being and security because God has generously blessed his land with fruitfulness. Fortune has smiled on him and he has been able to accumulate a sizable portion of this world's goods.
The point of the story is not that there is something wrong with amassing some wealth, but that he was intending to store it all by building bigger barns and storing it. He was called "foolish" because he did not recognize that his wealth had brought him happiness and that it could do the same for others if only it were not locked up in those bigger barns. His sin was not that he had become wealthy, but that he wanted to hoard all his wealth. His sin was not that he ate, drank and was merry, but that he was withholding the means for others to do the same. He had become a bottleneck in the flow of Shalom blessings to others.
The story, so understood, is not a teaching condemning the foolishness of gathering wealth. It is rather a parable which condemns the refusal to share the wealth we do not need. It warns about the shortsightedness of failing to be a good custodian of the abundance that God entrusts to us.
50. Storing What We Do Not Need
Illustration
W. Robert McClelland
Jesus did not condemn the man for eating, drinking and being merry, nor even for being rich. Rather the man was called foolish for building bigger barns. The point of the story is that the entrepreneur was planning to store more of his wealth than he needed to eat, drink and be merry. Look again at the words of the story. The man says, "What shall I do for I have nowhere to store my crops?" Not true! He has barns. His problem is that his harvest has been so great that his present storage facilities will not hold all of the grain. So he decides, "I will tear down my barns and build larger ones, and there I will store all my grain. Then and only then will I have ample goods to eat, drink and be merry." Again, not true! He already has ample goods. He does not have to live in the moment. He has barns for his future. They may not be as big as he would like, but he has plenty to eat, drink and be merry. The man already has enough wealth to enjoy Shalom. He has a sense of well-being and security because God has generously blessed his land with fruitfulness. Fortune has smiled on him and he has been able to accumulate a sizeable portion of this world's goods.
The point of the story is not that there is something wrong with amassing some wealth, but that he was intending to store it all by building bigger barns and storing it. He was called "foolish" because he did not recognize that his wealth had brought him happiness and that it could do the same for others if only it were not locked up in those bigger barns. His sin was not that he had become wealthy, but that he wanted to hoard all his wealth. His sin was not that he ate, drank and was merry, but that he was withholding the means for others to do the same. He had become a bottleneck in the flow of Shalom blessings to others.
The story, so understood, is not a teaching condemning the foolishness of gathering wealth. It is rather a parable which condemns the refusal to share the wealth we do not need. It warns about the shortsightedness of failing to be a good custodian of the abundance that God entrusts to us.
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